ppr铝塑稳态管价格表:绵长的阴影：烟草交易的历史和冲突

17世纪的烟草交易告诉了我们关于现代毒品交易战争的什么呢？查尔斯 C 曼恩的新书《历史怪诞经济学》将二者做了一个比较。

It is fair to say that the global drug war began 400 years ago this autumn, when a man named John Rolfe obtained tobacco seeds from the Caribbean.

说起来全球毒品战争始于400年前的秋天，当一个名叫约翰的人从加勒比海获得了一颗烟草种子时开始。

Rolfe was a colonist in Jamestown, Virginia, the first successful English settlement in the Americas. Most people know him today, if they know him at all, as the man who married Pocahontas, the "Indian princess" in countless romantic stories. A few history buffs understand that by taking tobacco to Jamestown, Rolfe launched the Virginia tobacco market – the primary force behind Jamestown's eventual success. That success hints at a third, still more important role: inadvertently, Rolfe's tobacco set the template for today's ￡200bn trade in illegal drugs. 

罗菲是英国在美洲第一块成功拓居区弗吉尼亚州詹姆斯敦的拓殖者。现在很多人知道他了解到的罗菲也是因为那些他与“印第安王妃”宝嘉康蒂结合的数不尽的浪漫故事。一些历史影迷的对罗菲的理解是：罗菲通过将烟草带入詹姆斯敦，开启了弗吉尼亚州的烟草市场，这也是詹姆斯敦最终获得成功的原动力。这样的成功仅仅是三分之一，但仍旧是起到了很重要的作用：其并非故意，但罗菲的烟草却为现今200亿欧元非法毒品交易树立了一个模板。

Tobacco rose and fell and rose and fell in a 400-year smoking spree that established a pattern for the trade in all addictive substances. Beginning with tobacco, governments have sought to ban drugs as soon as they arrive, invariably invoking their destructive effects on family and nation. Without exception, the bans have produced waves of criminality and the criminals have become threats to political stability in the areas in which they operate (the Caribbean in the 17th century, northern Mexico in our own time). Governments waffle between turning blind eyes to the criminals and fighting them bloodily. The ultimate ends of this process – legalisation, social stigma, and, most direly, unfashionability – suggest what will happen to the global market for marijuana and heroin. 

在400年的吸食狂欢中，烟草的起起伏伏为所有可以上瘾物质的交易建立了一种模式。从烟草开始下手，政府在他们一上任时就已经企图禁止毒品了，而且也总是以毒品破坏家庭和社会的影响唤起注意。毫无例外，禁令掀起了犯罪风潮而且这些犯罪还开始影响到了他们执政区域的政治稳定性（17世纪的加勒比海，我们自己时代的北墨西哥）。政府要么就对犯罪视而不见，要么就是血腥镇压。禁令实施过程的最终结局是--合法化，社会声誉和最骇人也最不与时俱进的做法--建议大麻和海洛因在全球市场上会发生的情况。

Nicotiana tabacum, as botanists call it, was the first global commodity craze. Fun, exotic, hallucinogenic and addictive, it was – is – a near-perfect consumer product. England fell under its spell in the 1580s, when the survivors of the nation's first, unsuccessful colonies – the Roanoke ventures of Sir Walter Raleigh – landed in Brighton with strange, fiery clay tubes at their lips. Obviously conscious of the impact of their appearance, they descended on the docks, smoking languidly, like so many Elizabethan versions of James Dean and Humphrey Bogart. By 1607, when Jamestown was founded, London's streets were jammed with more than 7,000 tobacco "houses" – café-like places where the city's growing throng of nicotine junkies could buy and consume tobacco. 

植物学家所称作的烟草，是世界上第一股商品狂潮。它有趣，富有异国风情，能引起幻觉，并且使人上瘾，烟草过去和现在都是一个近乎完美的消费品。16世纪80年代，当沃尔特 罗利先生带领的罗诺克投机者嘴刁奇怪且炽热粘土管登陆布莱诺，这一国家幸存者的第一块不成功的殖民地时，英格兰归入了烟草的拼写。明显意识到它们的外观，投机者在被告席上进行袭击，疲倦地吸着烟草，就像许多伊丽莎白时代的译本中关于詹姆斯 迪恩和亨弗莱 鲍嘉的描述一样。到1607年詹姆斯敦呗发现时，超过7000座烟草“屋”挤满在伦敦的街上，这些咖啡屋模样的地方其实却是城市里越来越多人吸食尼古丁，购买和消费烟草的场所。

None of this was exceptional. Between 1580 and 1610, Nicotiana tabacum, a species originally from the Amazon, became a fixture in every inhabited part of the earth. Almost immediately it attracted governmental ire. Bans on tobacco, some enforced by the death penalty, were enacted by France, Russia, Sweden, the Ottoman and Mughal empires, and the Japanese shogunate. The smoking weed quickly became so ubiquitous in Manchuria, according to historian Timothy Brook, that in 1635 the Khan, Hong Taiji, discovered that his soldiers "were selling their weapons to buy tobacco". Enraged, he prohibited smoking. 

这一切都是那么毫无例外。1580年至1610年间，烟草，一种起源于亚马逊河的物种，逐渐变成了地球上每一个有人居住地域的固定器具。几乎烟草立刻点燃了政府的怒火。关于烟草的禁令，在法国，俄国，瑞典，土耳其和蒙兀儿帝国，还有日本幕府将军是实行死刑的。在满洲国吸食大麻也迅速变成了普遍存在的现象，根据历史学家蒂莫西 布鲁克所记载，在1635年皇太极可汗发现他的士兵有将武器变卖而去买烟草的现象，即被触怒，于是下达禁烟令。

No anti-tobacco crusader is better known than King James I, whose Counterblaste to Tobacco, issued in 1604, proclaimed that smoking was "lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the nose, harmefull to the braine, [and] dangerous to the lungs". James sought to ban tobacco outright, but was rebuffed by a hostile Parliament. Pope Urban VIII was more successful. Infuriated by reports that priests were celebrating mass with lighted cigars, the Pope promptly – and successfully – prohibited smoking in the pulpit. 

没有哪位反烟草改革者比詹姆斯一世更为大家所熟知，他在1604年颁布的反对条令中声明吸烟“看上去令人生厌，闻起来难受，伤害大脑，危害肺”。詹姆斯企图完全禁止烟草，但是却被敌对议会一口回绝。蒲伯 厄本比较成功，被神父点着雪茄烟与民众欢庆的报告触怒，蒲伯当即下令，很成功地禁止神职人员吸烟。

Demand continued unabated. Even as James thundered against tobacco's destructive effect on society, the weed itself was sometimes sold for its weight in silver in London. In the English colony of Bermuda, farmers routinely purchased brides for bags of tobacco (typically, the weight was about 100lb). Across the globe, gangs of young smokers in Edo (Tokyo) were so outraged by the high price of a smoke that they routinely ransacked tobacco warehouses. Customs officials in Istanbul, unable to afford a pipeful, routinely shook down visitors for smoking supplies. 

对烟草的需求丝毫没有减弱。甚至就算是有詹姆斯这样猛烈攻击烟草对于社会产生破坏性影响伦敦，有些时候烟草也会以将其盛入银器中的重量变卖。在英属百慕大群岛殖民地，农民惯常会收购几袋烟草（通常重量约100磅）。纵观全球，在东京的年轻烟民群体因为烟价太高而气愤，他们照例会抢夺烟草仓库。伊斯坦布尔海关的官员没能力购买其一斗烟，通常以勒索游客供应烟草。

Coupled with high demand, tobacco criminalisation drove up its price, which led to an explosion of tobacco bootleggery that continues to the present day. Pirates grew and sold tobacco throughout the Caribbean, especially in Venezuela. Outraging the Spanish crown, Spanish and Indian smallholders in remote colonial areas converted their wheat and maize plots to tobacco, then sold the harvest to Dutch and English pirates. So powerful did the gangs become that the Spanish ambassador to England complained that English demand was causing the collapse of law and order in tobacco country. (This is not confined to the past: cigarette smuggling remains a major industry in pirate havens from southern Italy to South-east China, but is also common in less rambunctious areas; police in suburban Maryland rolled up an alleged tobacco ring in the eastern US just last month.) Even as moralists like James thundered that tobacco was destroying the family, royal tax officials were eyeing its legalisation. Few programs generate revenue more reliably than a tax on an addictive substance. 

加上高需求，烟草的犯罪也太高了价格，这也导致了非法私倒烟草的爆发，并一直持续到现在。加勒比海全境，特别是在委内瑞拉，海盗不断增多并兜售烟草。居住在偏远殖民地区的西班牙和印第安小农，将他们的小麦和玉米地转中了烟草，然后再变卖给荷兰和英格兰海盗，这激怒了西班牙皇室。他们的力量变得如此强大，西班牙使节返回英格兰时抱怨道：英国对烟草的需求瓦解了种植烟草国家的法律和社会秩序。（这不仅限于过去，香烟走私始终是从南意大利至中国东南部海盗狙击镜港口的主要产业，但是这种现象在一些不很喧闹的地区也很常见；上月，警方在美国东部的马里兰州郊区捣毁了一个所谓的烟草环。）尽管像詹姆斯一样的道德家怒喝烟草破坏了家庭，皇家税收官员还是亲眼见证了烟草的合法化。少数项目生成税收却比在上瘾物质上征收的税更加可靠。

上瘾群体对烟草的渴望是不能适应一些经济条款的，因为他们对花费相对不敏感。如果他们能够拿到烟草，满足渴望，他们很乐意地去支付哪怕价格会高的政府强加税费。在詹姆斯的禁烟法令实施的一年间，英国政府也设立了第一个烟草税。

Prohibitionists might note a disturbing parallel. Everywhere in the world, the lure of tobacco money eventually overwhelmed efforts to prevent addiction. The son of Hong Taiji, the Manchu Khan who banned tobacco, finished seizing China and in 1644 became the first emperor of the Qing dynasty. He, too, fought against tobacco. But Hong Taiji's grandson, the Kangxi emperor, started smoking at the age of seven – and watched new tobacco taxes become major financial contributors to the Qing state. 

禁酒主义者可能会记录一些令人不安的对比。世界各地，烟草钱的诱惑最终是为了合力防止上瘾。皇太极的儿子，这位满族可汗禁止烟草，并在1644年统一了中国，成为了清朝第一位皇帝。同样他是反对烟草的，而皇太极的孙子，也就是康熙帝在他7岁的时候便开始吸烟，并且他亲眼见证了新的烟草税变成了清王朝主要的财政收入。

One by one, other states slowly followed the Manchu lead, legalising and taxing tobacco. Marijuana is following the same path, slowly becoming tax fodder in nation after nation. Here Mughal India was perhaps the first society to reverse course (the East India Company later added opium taxes to the mix). Decades later, countries such as the Netherlands followed the Mughal path. Even in the notoriously anti-drug US, places such as California and Massachusetts, hard hit by recession, are considering marijuana's use as a taxable commodity. 

其他国家开始一个接一个的跟随满族的领导，使烟草合法化并征税。大麻也遵循一样的做法，慢慢地从一国到另一国，变成了征收税赋的对象。蒙兀儿印度有可能是第一个突破常规的社会（东印度公司随后将鸦片税加入其中进行混合）。数十年之后，像荷兰这样的国家也效仿了蒙兀儿的道路。甚至是在禁毒声名狼藉的美国，像加利福尼亚州和马塞诸塞州这样的地方，由于被经济衰退严重打击，也考虑将大麻的使用列为可征税的商品。

Yet history should not give too much encouragement to the forces behind unfettered legalisation, either. If tobacco and other drugs are a guide, legalisation is followed, eventually, by social disapproval. Everywhere that tobacco has become a fully accepted commodity its use has – eventually, after decades – declined. The tobacco-besotted colonial US, the nation that held the world's most permissive views on tobacco during the 17th and 18th centuries, ultimately became the land where bewildered European and Asian smokers would be ejected from restaurants, cafés and bars. Even as recently as the 1980s, Britons mocked the "puritanical" anti-tobacco crusades in the US. They have fallen into line. So have the Italians, Turks and even the Chinese. 

然而，历史并没有为自由合法化背后的力量给予太多的鼓励。如果烟草和其他毒品为先导，随后进行合法化，最终被社会反对。在各地，烟草已经成为了完全被接受的一种商品，它的作用最终在数十年之后都衰退了。烟草沉醉的殖民地美国，这个世界上自诩为对烟草给予最宽容观念的国家，在17世纪至18世纪见，最终也成为了极力从餐厅，咖啡屋和酒吧驱赶欧洲和亚洲吸烟者的国家。甚至是在刚过去的20世纪80年代，英国人也曾嘲笑在美国的“清教徒”反烟十字军，他们保持禁烟的统一战线，这其中包括了意大利人，土耳其人和中国人。

毒品变成了社会淘汰的产物，就像现今社会的衰退一般，如果历史是导向，我们孙辈的孙辈将把今天人类与大麻，可卡因和鸦片的争斗看作是无经验过去令人困惑的历史化石。

'1493 – How Europe's Discovery of the Americas Revolutionized Trade, Ecology and Life on Earth' by Charles C Mann is published by Granta (￡25). To order a copy for the special price of ￡19.99 (free P&P) call Independent Books Direct on 08430 600 030, or visit www.independentbooksdirect.co.uk

1493年《欧洲关于美洲变革的贸易，生态学和生活的发现》，作者：查尔斯 C 曼恩， 由格兰塔出版社出版（25英镑）。订购19.99英镑的特价版本可以拨打独立书局电话08430 600 030或登录网站www.independentbooksdirect.co.uk