建筑声学被描述为一种黑色艺术的东西或者怜惜点的说，一个神秘的科学。虽然不是纯粹的艺术，它也要作到即漂亮又实用。本文是设计了广州音乐厅的声学家马歇尔.朗的《建筑声学》一书的第一章，介绍了自古以来建筑声学，包括剧场以及音乐的发展历史。

音乐，戏剧，和公共演讲艺术都对声学和建筑产生了影响并被其影响着。据推测，非洲的音乐和舞蹈之所以演变成高度复杂的节拍特征而不是欧洲早期音乐的旋律线性，部分的原因，是因为它们是表演在户外的。W.C.赛宾（1868-1919），建筑声学的先驱，认为音阶发展在欧洲而不是在非洲，可以归因于生活环境的差异。在欧洲，史前部落在山洞里寻求庇护，后来建造越来越大，越来越混响的庙宇及教堂。罗马教皇的吟颂是在哥特式教堂的声学特性下发展起来的，随后巴洛克音乐被书写出来以迎合当时的教堂环境。在二十世纪的后半段，无论舞台设计还是表演艺术都被技术的发展驱动着，特别是发明了电影和电视的电子工业。随着能够创造视觉环境和听觉环境的计算机软件的开发，艺术作品现在不仅可以影响也可以对空间进行定义。  

GREEK AND ROMAN PERIOD (650 BC - AD 400)

希腊和罗马时期

The origin of music, beginning with some primeval song around an ancient campfire, is impossible to date. There is evidence (Sandars, 1968) to suggest that instruments existed as early as 13,000 BC. The understanding of music and consonance dates back at least to 3000 BC, when the Chinese philosopher Fohi wrote two monographs on the subject (Skudrzyk, 1954).

音乐起源于围绕在古老的篝火周围的一些原始歌曲，日期是不可能确定的。有证据表明从公元前13000年就开始有乐器的出现。对音乐和共鸣的理解至少可以追溯到公元前3000年，中国哲学家伏羲就有关于这个问题的两个专著。

The earliest meeting places were probably no more than conveniently situated open areas. Their form was whatever existed in nature and their suitability to purpose was haphazard. As the need arose to address large groups for entertainment, military, or political purposes, it became apparent that concentric circles brought the greatest number of people close to the central area. Since the human voice is directional and intelligibility decreases as the listener moves off axis, seating arrangements were defined by the vocal polar pattern and developed naturally, as people sought locations yielding the best audibility. This led to the construction of earthen or stone steps, arranging the audience into a semicircle infront of the speaker. The need to improve circulation and permanence evolved in time to the construction of dedicated amphitheaters on hillsides based on the same vocal patterns.

最早的集会场所很可能是比露天场地舒适不了多少的地方。它们以天然的形状存在，对它们的使用也是偶然的。基于增长的大规模的娱乐，军事和政治活动的需要，同心圆显而易见的被认为是可以使最多的群众聚集到中心的形状。由于人的声音是有方向性的，语音清晰度随着听众偏离声音的中心而减弱，基于人们寻求最佳的可听地点的需要，座位根据声音的指向特性自然而然的排列。这导致了泥土阶或石阶的建构，安排观众们面对讲演者坐成一个半圆形。对交通和永久的场地需要使室外露天剧场在山坡上按着一样的声音指向性建立了起来。

The Greeks, perhaps due to their democratic form of government, built some of the earliest outdoor amphitheaters. The seating plan was in the shape of a segment of a circle, slightly more than 180?, often on the side of a hill facing the sea. One of the best-preserved examples of the Greco-Hellenistic theater is that built at Epidaurus in the northeastern Peloponnese in 330 BC, about the time of Aristotle. A sketch of the plan is shown in Fig. 1.1. The seating was steeply sloped in these structures, typically 2:1, which afforded good sight lines and reduced grazing attenuation. Even with these techniques, it is remarkable that this theater, which seated as many as 17,000 people, actually functioned.

希腊人，或许是由于他们的民主政府形式，兴建了一些最早的室外露天剧场。座位的设计是圆形的一段，稍微超过180°，往往就在山坡上，面朝大海。保存最完好的例子之一是亚里士多德时期的公元前330年建在伯罗奔尼撒半岛东北部埃皮达鲁斯的古希腊剧场。剧场的座位是急剧倾斜的，通常为 2:1的坡度，给予观众们良好的视线并且减少了掠射衰减。这个剧院实际运作时可容纳多达17000人，非常的不寻常。 

古老的埃皮达鲁斯剧场，希腊

The ancient Greeks were aware of other acoustical principles, at least empirically. Chariot wheels in Asia Minor were heavy, whereas those of the Greeks were light since they had to operate on rocky ground. To achieve high speed, the older Asian design was modified, so that the four-spoke wheels were smaller and the wooden rims were highly stressed and made to be very flexible. They were so light that if left overnight under the weight of the chariot they would undergo deformation due to creep. Telemachus, in Homer’s story of the Odyssey, tipped his vehicle vertically against a wall, while others removed their wheels in the evening (Gordon, 1978) to prevent warping. The wheels were mounted on light cantilevered shafts and the vehicle itself was very flexible, which helped isolate the rider from ground-induced vibrations.

至少在实践上，古希腊人也知道其他的声学原理。在小亚细亚，马车的车轮是沉重的，而希腊人的车轮是轻型的，因为他们要在陡峭的路面上运行。为了实现高速，古希腊人修改了老式的亚细亚设计，四辐条的车轮变小了，木轮的边缘变轻了，并且非常灵活。这些车轮是那么的轻盈，如果压在战车下过夜它们就会弯曲变形。荷马史诗里的忒勒马科斯在晚上把他的车竖直靠墙，而其他的车则被卸去了轮毂以防止变形（戈登，1978）。车轮装在轻型的悬臂轴上，车辆本身也非常的灵活，这都有助于减少与地面接触而产生的振动，保护骑手。

Greek music and dance were also highly developed arts. In 250 BC at a festival to Apollo, a band of several hundred musicians played a five-movement piece celebrating Apollo’s victory over Python (Rolland et al., 1948). There is strong evidence that the actors wore masks that were fitted out with small megaphones to assist in increasing the directivity of the voices. It is not surprising that the Greek orator Demosthenes (c 384–322 BC) was reputed to have practiced his diction and volume along the seashore by placing pebbles in his mouth. Intelligibility was enhanced, not only by the steeply raked seating, but also by the naturally low background noise of a preindustrial society.

希腊的音乐和舞蹈也是高度发达的。在公元前250年一个阿波罗的节日上，数百名音乐家组成的乐队演奏了五重奏来庆祝阿波罗战胜了蟒蛇(罗兰,1948)。有确凿证据表明当时的表演者们戴着装有小型扩音器的面具，以辅助声音的方向性传播。不奇怪的是大家都认为希腊演说家德摩斯梯尼(384BC-322BC)是在海边把鹅卵石放在他的嘴里来练习发音和音量的。不仅是急剧倾斜的座位，前工业化社会的低背景噪音都使语音清晰度得到了提高。

Our knowledge of the science of acoustics also dates from the Greeks. Although there was a general use of geometry and other branches of mathematics during the second and third millennia BC, there was no attempt to deduce these rules from first principles in a rigorous way (Dimarogonas, 1990). The origination of the scientific method of inquiry seems to have begun with the Ionian School of natural philosophy, whose leader was Thales of Miletos (640–546 BC), the first of the seven wise men of antiquity. While he is better known for his discovery of the electrical properties of amber (electron in Greek), he also introduced the logical proof for abstract propositions (Hunt, 1978), which led in time to the formal mathematics of geometry, based on the theorem-proof methods of Euclid (330–275 BC).

我们对声学知识的认识也可以追溯到希腊时代。虽然在第二和第一个公元前千年有着对几何学和数学的其他分支的普遍应用，但并没有人试图通过严密的推导来建立原则(Dimarogonas,1990)。科学调查方法的起源似乎从爱奥尼亚的自然哲学学校开始的，其领导人是米利都学派的泰利斯(640BC-546BC)，古代七智者的第一人。虽然以发现琥珀的电性能而出名(希腊语电子)，他还介绍了抽象命题的逻辑证明(亨特,1978)，在欧几里德定理证明方法基础上使正式的几何数学出现(330BC-275BC)。

Pythagoras of Samos (c 570–497 BC), a contemporary of Buddha, Confucius, and Lao-Tse, can be considered a student of the Ionian School. He traveled to Babylon, Egypt, and probably India before establishing his own school at Crotone in southern Italy. Pythagoras is best known for the theorem that bears his name, but it was discovered much earlier in Mesopotamia. He and his followers made important contributions to number theory and to the theory of music and harmony. The word theorii appeared in the time of Pythagoras meaning “the beauty of knowledge” (Herodotos, c 484–425 BC). Boethius (AD 480–524), a Roman scholar writing a thousand years later, reports that Pythagoras discovered the relationship between the weights of hammers and the consonance of their natural frequencies of vibration. He is also reported to have experimented with the relationship between consonance and the natural frequencies of vibration of stretched strings, pipes, shells, and filled vessels. The Pythagorean School began the scientific exploration of harmony and acoustics through these studies. They understood the mechanisms of generation, propagation, and perception of sound (Dimarogonas, 1990). Boethius describes their knowledge of sound in terms of waves generated by a stone falling into a pool of water. They probably realized that sound was a wave propagating through the air and may have had a notion of the compressibility of air during sound propagation.

萨摩斯的毕达哥拉斯(570-497BC)，一个与佛主，孔子和老子同时代的人，也算是一个爱奥尼亚学校的学生。他在意大利南部的克罗托成立自己的学校前，到过巴比伦，埃及可能还有印度。毕达哥拉斯最出名的是与他同名的定理，不过这一定理在美索不达米亚更早被人们发现。他和他的追随者们对数字理论和音乐及和声理论作出了重要贡献。"理论"这个词出现在毕达哥拉斯时代，意译是“美丽的知识”(希罗多德, 484BC-425BC)。波爱修斯(480-524)，一个罗马学者在一千多年后写的报告中写道，毕达哥拉斯发现了锤的重量与其固有振动频率之间的共鸣关系。据说他还对紧绷的弦，管子，贝壳和满载的船的固有振动频率进行了测试。毕达哥拉斯学派开始通过这些研究探索合弦与声学 。他们理解产生，传播以及感知声音的机械原理(Dimarogonas,1990)。波爱修斯把声音描述成一个掉进水池里的石头激起的波浪。他们可能意识到声音是通过空气传播的波，并可能有声音传播时空气压缩的概念。

Aristotle (384–322 BC) recognized the need for a conducting medium and stated that the means of propagation depended on the properties of the material. There was some confusion concerning the relationship between sound velocity and frequency, which was clarified by Theophrastos of Eresos (370–285 BC): “The high note does not differ in speed, for if it did it would reach the hearing sooner, and there would be no concord. If there is concord, both notes must have the same speed.” The first monograph on the subject, On Acoustics, is attributed to Aristotle, although it may have been written by his followers. Whoever wrote it, the author had a clear understanding of the relationship between vibration and sound: “bodies that are capable of vibrating produce sounds . . . strings are examples of such bodies.”

建筑声学的发展历史：罗马时代

建筑声学被描述为一种黑色艺术的东西或者怜惜点的说，一个神秘的科学。虽然不是纯粹的艺术，它也要作到即漂亮又实用。本文是设计了广州音乐厅的声学家马歇尔.朗的《建筑声学》一书的第一章，介绍了自古以来建筑声学，包括剧场以及音乐的发展历史。

The Roman and the late Hellenistic amphitheaters followed the earlier Greek seating pattern, but limited the seating arc to 180?. They also added a stagehouse (skene) behind the actors, a raised acting area (proskenion), and hung awnings (valeria) overhead to shade the patrons. The chorus spoke from a hard-surfaced circle (orchestra) at the center of the audience.

罗马和后期的希腊露天剧场继续之前早期希腊的座位模式，但把围绕弧度限制在180°。他们还添加了一个演员背后的舞台用房，一个高起的演出区和架空在观众头顶遮荫的遮阳篷。合唱团在观众中心的硬地面上说话。

A rendering of the Roman theater at Aspendius, Turkey is shown in Fig. The Romans were better engineers than the early Greeks and, due to their development of the arch and the vault, were not limited to building these structures on the natural hillsides.

至今保存完好的罗马剧场之一是,土耳其的阿斯潘多斯古罗马剧院。罗马人在工程方面比早期的希腊人更出色，而且由于他们对拱门和拱顶地下室的开发，剧场不仅限于建造在自然山坡上。 

土耳其的阿斯潘多斯古罗马剧院

The most impressive of the Roman amphitheaters, the Flavian amphitheater was built between AD 70 and 81, and was later called the Colosseum, due to its proximity to a colossal statue of Nero. With a total seating capacity of about 40,000 it is, except for the Circus Maximus and the Hippodrome (both racecourses), the largest structure for audience seating of the ancient world (Izenour, 1977). Its architect is unknown, but his work was superb.

当时最惊人的剧场是建造在公元70年和81年之间的弗拉维安露天剧场，由于形状接近一个巨大的斗兽雕像，它后来被称为罗马斗兽场。拥有约4万个座位的罗马斗兽场是除了马克西姆斯大赛场和战车竞技场以外，古代世界最大的公众建筑结构(Izenour,1977)。它的建筑师未知，但是他的工作是一流的。

罗马斗兽场

The sightlines are excellent from any seat and the circulation design is still used in modern stadia. The floor of the arena was covered with sand and the featured events were generally combats between humans, or between humans and animals. This type of spectacle was one of the few that did not require a high degree of speech intelligibility for its appreciation by the audience. The floor was sometimes caulked and filled with water to a depth of about a meter for mock sea battles.

坐在任何位置都可以有良好的视线，它的路线设计仍在现代体育场中被使用。斗兽场的地板上覆盖着沙子，表演活动基本上是人与人之间，人与动物之间的战斗。这种类型是为数不对语音清晰度要求不高的活动。地板有时灌满了深度约一米的水，以模拟海战。

Smaller indoor theaters also became a part of the Greek and Roman culture. These more intimate theaters, called odea, date from the age of Pericles (450 BC) in Greece. Few remain, perhaps due to their wood roof construction. The later Greek playwrights, particularly Sophocles and Euripides, depended less on the chorus and more on the dialogue between actors to carry the meaning of the play, particularly in the late comedies. These dramatic forms developed either because of the smaller venues or to accommodate the changing styles.

小型的室内剧院也成为希腊和罗马文化的一部分。这些更亲切的剧院，叫"奥多"，时间追溯到希腊伯里克利时代(450BC)。或许是由于他们的木建筑屋顶，只有几座得以保存。后来的希腊剧作家尤其是索福克勒斯和欧里庇德斯，在后期的喜剧中依靠较少的合唱和更多的表演者之间的对话来进行表演的发挥，。这些戏剧形式的发展或者是由于场地的缩小或是为了适应不断变化的风格的需要。

The Odeon of Agrippa, a structure built in Athens in Roman times (12 BC), was a remarkable building. It had a wood-trussed clear span of over 25 meters (83 feet). It finally collapsed in the middle of the second century. Izenour (1977) points out that these structures, which ranged in size from 200 to 1500 seats, are found in many of the ancient Greek cities. He speculates that, “during the decline of the Empire these roofed theaters, like the small noncommercial theaters of our time, became the final bastion of the performing arts, where the more subtle and refined stage pieces—classical tragedy and comedy, ode and epoch—were performed, the latter to the accompaniment of music (lyre, harp, double flute and oboe) hence the name odeum, ‘place of the ode’.”

雅典的阿格利帕音乐厅,一座建于罗马时代的建筑(12BC)，是一座不寻常的建筑。在二世纪中期倒塌的它木桁架净跨超过25米。Izenour(1977)指出古希腊的许多城市发现了类似的大小介于200个到1500个座位之间的建筑。他推测，“在帝国衰落时，这些剧院像我们这个时代的小型非商业性的剧院一样，上映着一些更加微妙和精致的表演剧目- 古典悲剧， 喜剧和颂词，后者是在音乐（竖琴，竖琴，长笛和双簧管）的伴奏下进行的，因此音乐厅这个名字就来源于-‘颂词的地方'。

雅典的阿格利帕音乐厅

Much of our knowledge of Roman architecture comes from the writings of Vitruvius Pollio, a working architect of the time, who authored De Architectura. Dating from around 27 BC,this book describes his views on many aspects of architecture, including theater design and acoustics. Some of his ideas were quite practical—such as his admonition to locate theaters on a “healthy” site with adequate ventilation (away from swamps and marshes). Seating should not face south, causing the audience to look into the sun. Unrestricted sightlines were considered particularly important, and he recommended that the edge of each row should fall on a straight line from the first to the last seat. His purpose was to assure good speech intelligibility as well as good sightlines.

我们关于罗马建筑的知识都来自于当时的建筑师维特鲁威。公元前27年，他撰写了著作《建筑十书》。这本书描述了建筑的许多方面，包括剧场设计和声学。他的一些想法是相当实用的，例如他劝告把剧院建在“健康”的有足够通风（远离沼泽和湿地）的地方。座位不应该朝南，让观众面对太阳。特别重要的是视线不能被遮挡，他建议从第一行到最后一行的每一行座位的边缘应该在一条直线上，目的是为了保证良好的语音清晰度以及良好的视线。

Vitruvius also added one of the great historical mysteries to the acoustical literature. He wrote that theaters should have large overturned amphora or sounding vases placed at regular intervals around the space to improve the acoustics. These were to be centered in cavities on small, 150mm(6”) high wedges so that the open mouth of the vase was exposed to the stage, as shown in a conjectural restoration by Izenour in Fig. 1.4, based on an excavation of a Roman theater at Beth Shean in Israel. The purpose, and indeed the existence of these vases, remains unclear. Even Vitruvius could not cite an example of their use, though he assures us that they existed in the provinces.

建筑声学的发展历史：早期基督教和罗马式时期

The early Christian period is dated from the Roman emperor Constantine to the coronation of Charlemagne in 800. Following the official sanction of Christianity by Constantine in 326 and his relocation from Rome to Byzantium in 330, later renamed Constantinople, the age was increasingly dominated by the church, which provided the structural framework of everyday life as the Roman and then the Byzantine empires slowly decayed. Incursions by the Huns in 376 were followed by other serious invasions. On the last day of December in the winter of 406, the Rhine river froze solid, forming a bridge between Roman-controlled Gaul and the land of the Germanic tribes to the east (Cahill, 1995). Across the ice came hundreds of thousands of hungry Germans, who poured out of the eastern forests onto the fertile plains of Gaul. Within a few years, after various barbarian armies had taken North Africa and large parts of Spain and Gaul, Rome itself was sacked by Alaric in 410.

早期基督教时期

早期基督教时期是从罗马君士坦丁皇帝加冕到公元 800年的查理曼大帝时期。继君士坦丁正式认可基督教并在公元330年从罗马搬迁到后来改名为君士坦丁堡的拜占庭之后，教堂在当时越来越占主导地位，并在罗马和拜占庭帝国渐渐消失时提供了日常生活的基本框架。公元376年匈奴入侵罗马，随后是其他的严重入侵：公元406年冬天十二月的最后一天，莱茵河上结了结结实实的冰，变成了连接罗马控制的高卢和东面日耳曼人部落的桥梁(卡希尔,1995)。冰面上来了成百上千的饥饿的德国人，从东部的森林涌向肥沃的高卢平原。短短的几年时间，各种野蛮军队夺取了北非和大部分的西班牙和高卢的土地，而罗马城最终在公元410年被阿拉里克洗劫。

In these difficult times, monasteries became places of refuge, which housed small self-sustaining communities—repositories of knowledge, where farming, husbandry, and scholarship were developed and preserved. These were generally left unmolested by their rough neighbors, who seemed to hold them in religious awe (Palmer, 1961). In time, the ablest inhabitants of the Empire became servants of the Church rather than the state and “gave their loyalty to their faith rather than their government” (Strayer, 1955). “Religious conviction did not reinforce patriotism and men who would have died rather than renounce Christianity accepted the rule of conquering barbarian kings without protest.” Under the new rulers a Romano-Teutonic civilization arose in the west, which eventually led to a division of the land into the states and nationalities that exist today.

在这些困难的时期，寺院成为避难的场所，安置了自我维持的小社区，保护了知识，使农业，牧业和学术得到了保护和开发。他们野蛮的邻居似乎对宗教有所敬畏，因此这些人一般没有受到他们的骚扰(帕尔默,1961)。同时，由于帝国中最能干的人成为了教会的仆人而不是国家的仆人，他们“忠诚于他们的信仰而不是他们的政府”(斯特雷耶,1955)。“宗教并没有加强爱国主义信念，人们宁愿去死而不愿意放弃基督教，因此人们毫无反抗的接受了野蛮国王的统治。’’ 在新法规下罗马-日尔曼文明在西方兴起，最终把领土分割成了现代的国家和民族的形式。

After the acceptance of Christianity, church construction began almost immediately in Rome, with the basilican church of St. Peter in 330 initiated by Constantine himself. The style, was an amalgam of the Roman basilica (hall of justice) and the Romanesque style that was to follow. The basic design became quite popular—there were 31 basilican churches in Rome alone. It consisted of a high central nave with two parallel aisles on either side separated by colonnades supporting the upper walls and lowpitched roof, culminating in an apse and preceded by an atrium or forecourt (Fletcher, 1963). The builders generally scavenged columns from older Roman buildings that they could not match or maintain, and which had therefore fallen into decay. The basilica style became a model for later church construction throughout Western Europe, eventually leading to the Gothic cathedrals.

基督教被接受后，从公元330年由君士坦丁自己开建的巴西立卡式圣彼得教堂起，教堂的建设几乎在罗马立即开始了。它遵循的是罗马巴西利卡（司法堂）的样式，而罗马式也是随后从这种样式发展起来。这种基本的设计变得非常的流行，仅罗马就有31个这样的大教堂。它包括一个高高的中殿和两个平行的，由柱廊支持上部墙壁和低坡屋顶的走道，后殿高度达到最高，前面有一个心房或前院（弗莱彻,1963）。建筑工人通常把旧罗马倒塌的建筑中的柱廊回收利用。这种巴西利卡风格后来成为整个西欧教堂的建筑模型，最终导致哥特式教堂的成型。

In the Eastern Roman Empire the defining architectural feature was the domed roof, used to cover square or polygonal floor plans. This form was combined with classical Greek columns supporting the upper walls with a series of round arches. The primary construction material was a flat brick, although marble was used as a decorative facade. The best known building of the time was St. Sophia (532–537) (Hagia Sophia, or divine wisdom) in Constantinople. This massive church, still one of the largest religious structures in the world, was built for Emperor Justinian by the architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus between 532 and 537. Its enormous dome, spanning 33 meters (107 feet) in diameter, is set in the center of a 76 meter (250 foot) long central nave. St. Sophia, shown in Fig. 1.6, was the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture and later, following the Turkish capture of the city in 1453, became the model for many of the great mosques.

东罗马帝国建筑的突出特点是在方形或多边形的平面上的圆顶。这种形式是支撑上部墙体的古希腊式圆柱与一系列圆拱的综合体。最初的建筑材料是平砖，装饰面使用的是大理石。当时最有名的建筑，是君士坦丁堡的圣索菲亚大教堂(532-537)(神圣智慧大教堂)。这个教堂至今仍然是世界上最大的宗教建筑之一，它在公元532年到537年由建筑师特拉列斯的安提缪斯和米利都的伊西陀尔专为查士丁尼皇帝建造。巨大的穹顶跨度33米(107英尺)坐落在长76米(250英尺)的中殿上。圣索非亚是拜占庭建筑的代表作，公元 1453年被土耳其占领后，它成为众多大清真寺的模型。

圣索菲亚大教堂，土耳其

Until a common system of musical notation was developed in the ninth century, there was little uniformity or record of the music. The early basilican churches were highly reverberant, even with open windows, and the pace and form of church music had to adjust to the architecture to be understood. Even with a simple monodic line, the blending of sounds from chants in these reverberant spaces is hauntingly beautiful.

直到第九世纪一个共同的乐谱体系的出现之前，几乎没有任何有关音乐的纪录。早期的巴西利卡教堂高度的回响，当时的音乐的节奏和形式不得因为教堂空间而作出调整，以便人们可以听懂。即使一个简单的单音，在这些空间里的混音也美丽的让人回味不已。

The eastern and western branches of the Christian church became divided by ideological differences that had been suppressed when the church was clandestine. An iconoclastic movement resulted from a decree from the eastern emperor, Leo III (717–741), forbidding any representation of human or animal form in the church. Subsequently many Greek artisans left Constantinople for Italy, where they could continue their professions under Pope Gregory II. This artistic diaspora caused Leo to relent somewhat and he allowed painted figures on the walls of eastern churches but continued the prohibition of sculpture. His decrees led, in part, to the Byzantine style—devoid of statuary, and unchanging in doctrine and ritual. In contrast, the western church embraced statuary and sculpture, which in time begot the highly ornamented forms of the Baroque period and the music that followed. The split between the eastern and western branches, which had begun in the ninth century with a theological argument over the nature of the divine spirit, finally ended with a formal schism in 1054 when the two churches solemnly excommunicated each other.

教堂在黑暗时期的被抑制的意识形态的差异，最终把东方和西方的基督教分为两个部分。东帝国皇帝利奥三世的一个法令，在教堂中禁止一切人和动物的形象的存在，导致人们发起了反抗传统的运动。结果使很多希腊工匠离开了君士坦丁堡来到意大利，在罗马教皇二世的统治下继续工作。艺术家的出走造成利奥三世有所松口，他容许了教会的墙壁上的绘画人物的存在，但继续禁止雕塑的出现。他的法令导致了拜占庭风格中雕像的缺乏和教义和仪式的教条。相比之下西方教会对雕像和雕塑展开怀抱，因而及时产生了高度装饰的巴洛克时期和其后的音乐。在第九世纪开始的东部和西部基督教的分裂导致了神学的论争，终于在公元1054年在两个教会郑重驱逐对方下正式分裂。

ROMANESQUE PERIOD

罗马式时期

The Romanesque period roughly falls between the reign of Charlemagne and the era of the Gothic cathedrals of the twelfth century. In the year 800 it was rare to find an educated layman outside of Italy (Strayer, 1955). The use of Latin decreased and languages fragmented according to region as the influence of a central authority waned. The feudal system developed in its place, not as a formal structure based on an abstract theory of government, but as an improvisation to meet the incessant demands of the common defense against raiders.

罗马式时期大致介于查理曼的统治时代到十二世纪的哥特式教堂时期。在公元800年时，在意大利以外找到一个受过教育的人是罕见的（斯特雷耶,1955）。由于中央统治的削弱，语言在不同地区变得不同而拉丁语的使用则变少了。一个封建制度在当地发展起来，它不具有一个以抽象政府为基础的的正式结构，而是作为一个即兴的策略来满足共同防御袭击者的需求。

The influence of both Roman and Byzantine traditions is evident in the architecture of the Romanesque period. From the Roman style, structures retained much of the form of the basilica; however, the floor plans began to take on the cruciform shape. The eastern influence entered the west primarily through the great trading cities of Venice, Ravenna, and Marseilles and appeared in these cities first. Romanesque style is characterized by rounded arches and domed ceilings that developed from the spherical shape of the east into vaulted structures in the west. The narrow upper windows, used in Italy to limit sunlight, lead to larger openings in the north to allow in the light, and the flat roofs of the south were sharpened in the north to throw off rain and snow. Romanesque structures remained massive until the introduction of buttresses, which allowed the walls to be lightened. Construction materials were brick and stone and pottery, as well as materials scavenged from the Roman ruins. The exquisite marble craftsmanship characteristic of the finest Greek and Roman buildings had been lost and these medieval brick structures seemed rough and plain compared with the highly ornamented earlier work.

罗马式建筑显然受到了罗马帝国和拜占庭传统的影响。它的结构形式大部分保留了巴西力卡的风格，但是平面上开始采取十字形状。东方的影响在贸易城市威尼斯，拉韦纳和马赛首先出现，并在通过这些城市进入西方。罗马式风格的特点是圆形拱门和圆顶天花，它们是东方的球形结构和西方的拱形结构的结合。在意大利用来挡光的狭窄的上部窗户，在北方变成较大的开口以便阳光进入，南方的平屋顶在北方被削尖以便排雨和排雪。直到扶壁的应用之前，罗马式结构都保持非常的巨大，扶壁使得墙壁变轻盈了。建筑材料有砖，石，陶器以及从罗马废墟回收的材料。希腊和罗马时期精美的大理石雕刻被抛弃，与早期建筑的高度装饰特点相比，中世纪的砖结构显得粗糙和平板。

One notable exception was St. Mark’s Cathedral in Venice. It was built on the site of the basilica church, originally constructed to house the remains of St. Mark in 864. The first church burned in 976 and was rebuilt between 1042 and 1085. It was modeled after the Church of the Apostles in Constantinople as a classic Romanesque structure in a nearly square cruciform shape, with rounded domes reminiscent of later Russian orthodox churches. St. Mark’s, illustrated in Fig. 1.7, was later home to a series of brilliant composers including Willaert (1480–1562), Gabrielli (1557–1612), and Monteverdi (1567–1643).

一个特殊的例外是威尼斯的圣马可大教堂。它建在一个巴西力卡教堂的原址上，最初的教堂建于公元864年用来保存圣马克的遗迹，它在公元976年被烧毁，公元1042年和公元1085年间重修。它仿照一个在君士坦丁堡的使徒教堂的典型的近方形十字形状的罗马式结构，圆形穹顶使人想起俄罗斯东正教教堂。圣马可教堂后来安葬了许多辉煌的作曲家包括维拉尔特(1480-1562)，加布里埃利(1557-1612)和威尔第(1567-1643)。

建筑声学的发展历史：哥特时期

Beginning in the late middle ages, around 1100, there was a burst in the construction of very large churches, the Gothic cathedrals, first in northern France and later spreading throughout Europe. These massive structures served as focal points for worship and repositories for the religious relics that, following the return of the crusaders from the holy lands, became important centers of the valuable pilgrim trade. The cathedrals were by and large a product of the laity, who had developed from a populace that once had only observed the religious forms, to one that held beliefs as a matter of personal conviction. Successful cities had grown prosperous with trade and during the relatively peaceful period of the late middle ages the citizens enthusiastically supported their construction. 

在公元1100年左右的中世纪晚期开始，先是在法国北部，后来在整个欧洲爆发了建设大型哥特式教堂的热潮。这些庞然大物担任着拜忌中心的责任，并继十字军从圣地归来后起着保存重点宗教文物的作用。因此它们成为朝圣者贸易的重要中心。大教堂是信徒大众化的成果，它们从民众中发展起来，使曾经的只为宗教服务的形式变成了个人信仰。成功的城市在贸易中繁荣，在中世纪后期相对和平的时期，市民们热情的支持教堂建设。

The first was built by Abbot Suger at St. Denis near Paris between 1137 and 1144 and was made possible by the hundreds of experiments in the building of fortified towns and churches, which had produced a skilled and knowledgeable work force. Suger was a gifted administrator and diplomat who also had the good fortune to attend school and become best friends with the young prince who became King Louis VI. When the king left on the Second Crusade he appointed Suger regent and left him in charge of the government. Following the success of St. Denis, other cathedrals were soon begun at Notre Dame (1163–c1250), Bourges (1192–1275), Chartes (1194–1260), and Rheims (1211–1290). These spectacular structures (see Fig. 1.8) carried the art and engineering of working in stone to its highest level. The vaulted naves, over 30 meters (100 feet) high, were lightened with windows and open colonnades and supported from the exterior with spidery flying buttresses, which gave the inside an ethereal beauty. Plain chant was the music of the religious orders and was suited perfectly to the cathedral. Singing was something that angels did, a way of growing closer to God. It was part of the every day religious life, done for the participants rather than for an outside listener.

第一个哥特建筑是由在巴黎附近的住持苏杰在公元1137年到公元1144年之间建造的圣德尼修道院。这项工程发展了一个熟练有识的工作队伍，使成百座的设防城镇和教堂建筑得以实验。苏杰是一个天才的管理者和外交家，他有幸得到教育，并成为后来的国王路易六世最好的朋友。国王在第二次东征前任命苏杰摄政和负责政府。圣德尼修道院建筑成功后，其他教堂很快就开始在巴黎圣母院(1163-1250),布尔日(1192-1275),Chartes(1194-1260)和兰斯(1211-1290)成功建造。这些壮观的建筑达到了石匠工艺的最高水平。拱形的殿超过30米(100英尺)高，轻颖的窗户和开放的柱廊，在外部支撑的蜘蛛飞扶壁，赋予内部空间一种空灵的美。单声圣歌是宗教音乐，非常适合在这种大教堂里演唱。歌唱是天使做的事情，一种更接近上帝的方式。人们把歌唱作为每天宗教生活的一部分，而不再只是聆听者。

In the second half of the twelfth century the beginnings of polyphony developed in the School of Notre Dame in Paris from its antecedents in the great abbey of St. Martial in Limoges. The transition began with the two-part organum of Leonin, and continued with the three and four-part organum of his successor Perotin. The compositions were appropriate for the large reverberant cathedrals under construction. A slowly changing plainsong pedal note was elaborated by upper voices, which did not follow the main melody note for note as before. This eventually led, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to the polyphonic motets in which different parts might also have differing rhythms. Progress in the development of serious music was laborious and slow. Outside the structured confines of church music, the secular troubadours of Provence, the trouveres of northern France and southern England, the story-telling jongleurs among the peasantry, and the minnesingers in Germany also made valuable contributions to the art.

十二世纪下半叶，复调开始从巴黎圣母院的学校里发展出来。过渡从两部分的奥干努姆（Organum)复调开始，继续发展到有三到四个部分的奥干努姆（Organum)复调。创作的曲目与正在建设的混响大的教堂相吻合。缓慢变化的圣歌踏板没有像以前一样只遵循主旋律，而是在高音部做强调。这最终导致在第十三和第十四世纪的经文歌的和弦也可能在不同部分有着不同的节奏。音乐的真正发展是费力和缓慢的。教会音乐的局限之外，普罗旺斯世俗的行吟诗人，法国北部和英格兰南部的游吟诗人，农民中的说故事艺人，德国的爱情歌手都为艺术作出了宝贵贡献。

The influence of the Church stood at its zenith in the thirteenth century. The crusades, of marginal significance militarily, had served to unite Western Europe into a single religious community. An army had pushed the Muslims nearly out of the Iberian peninsula. Beginning in the fourteenth century, however, much of the civilized world was beset by the ravages of the bubonic plague. Between the years 1347 and 1350 it wiped out at least one third of the population. The Church was hit harder than the general populace, losing more than half its members. Many men, largely illiterate, had lost their wives to the plague and sought to join the religious orders. Lured by offers of money from villages that had no priest, others came to the church for financial security. Money flowed into Rome and supported a growing bureaucracy and opulence, which ultimately led to the Reformation. This worsened a problem already confronting the religious leadership, “the danger of believing that the institution exists for the benefit of those who conduct its affairs.” (Palmer, 1961)

教会的影响在十三世纪达到巅峰。十字军东征虽然有着微小的军事意义，却起到了把西欧凝聚成一个宗教区的作用。军队已把穆斯林几近赶出了伊比利亚半岛。但在十四世纪开始文明世界的大部分遭到鼠疫的肆虐，公元1347年和1350年间它消灭了至少三分之一的人口。教会比一般民众受到的打击更大，失去了超过一半的成员。许多男人，大多是文盲，在鼠疫时失去了妻子，谋求加入宗教的队伍。他们一些人是在没有牧师的村庄的金钱诱惑下，一些人是为了金钱上的保障。越来越多的钱流入罗马，并支持了官僚主义的富裕，最终导致了改革。这使已经在眼前的宗教领导问题更加严重了，“权利机构的存在就是为了维护自己的利益。”(帕尔默,1961)

With the rise of towns and commerce, public entertainment became more secular and less religious in its focus. Theater in the late middle ages was tolerated by the Church largely because it had been co-opted as a religious teaching aid. Early plays, dating from the tenth century, were little more than skits based on scripture, which were performed in the streets by troupes. These evolved, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, into the miracle and mystery plays that combined singing and spoken dialogue. The language of the early medieval theater was Latin, which few understood. This changed in time to the local vernacular or to a combination of Latin and vernacular. The plays evolved from a strictly pedagogical tool to one that contained more entertainment. As the miracle plays developed, they were performed in rooms that would support the dialogue and make it understandable. By 1400, the pretext of the play remained religious, but the theater was already profane (Hindley,1965).

随着城镇和商业的兴起，公共娱乐变得更加世俗，宗教性减弱了。教会在中世纪晚期容忍了剧院的存在，因为它成为讲授宗教的一种方式。第十世纪的早期剧作只不过是一些街头表演的圣典的幽默故事。这些表演在第十三世纪和第十四世纪演变成结合歌唱和对话的奇事剧和神秘剧。中世纪早期剧场里使用的语言是只有少数人听得懂的拉丁语，然后及时的变成方言或是方言与拉丁语的结合。表演从严格的教学工具到含有更多的娱乐性，奇事剧发展起来后，表演变成在可以听清对话的房间内进行。到了公元1400年，戏剧表演的托辞仍然是宗教，但剧院已经是非宗教的了(辛德雷,1965)。