本田飞度方向机匹配:丝绸的历史

来自免费的维基百科

Women striking and preparing silk, painting by Emperor Huizong of Song, early 12th century.

宋徽宗于12世纪早期绘制的敲击和准备丝绸的妇女图。

According to Chinese tradition, the history of silk begins in the 27th century BCE. Its use was confined to China until the Silk Road opened at some point during the latter half of the first millennium BCE. China maintained its virtual monopoly over silk for another thousand years. Not confined to clothing, silk was also used for a number of other applications, including writing, and the colour of silk worn was an important indicator of social class during the Tang Dynasty.

根据中国传统说法，丝绸的历史于公元前二十七世纪就开始了。直到公元前一世纪后半叶的某个时刻丝绸之路的开拓，丝绸的利用一直被局限在中国。中国对丝绸维持着又一千年事实上的垄断地位。丝绸不仅用于衣物，而且还有许多其它用处，包括书写，以及人们穿戴丝绸的颜色在唐朝是社会阶级的重要标志。

Silk cultivation spread to Japan in around 300 CE, and by 522 the Byzantines managed to obtain silkworm eggs and were able to begin silkworm cultivation. The Arabs also began to manufacture silk during this same time. As a result of the spread of sericulture, Chinese silk exports became less important, although they still maintained dominance over the luxury silk market. The Crusades brought silk production to Western Europe, in particular to many Italian states, which saw an economic boom exporting silk to the rest of Europe. Changes in manufacturing techniques also began to take place during the Middle Ages, with devices such as the spinning wheel first appearing. During the 16th century France joined Italy in developing a successful silk trade, though the efforts of most other nations to develop a silk industry of their own were unsuccessful.

The Industrial Revolution changed much of Europe’s silk industry. Due to innovations in spinning cotton, it became much cheaper to manufacture and therefore caused more expensive silk production to become less mainstream. New weaving technologies, however, increased the efficiency of production. Among these was the Jacquard loom, developed for silk embroidery. An epidemic of several silkworm diseases caused production to fall, especially in France, where the industry never recovered. In the 20th century Japan and China regained their earlier role in silk production, and China is now once again the world’s largest producer of silk. The rise of new fabrics such as nylon reduced the prevalence of silk throughout the world, and silk is now once again a somewhat rare luxury good, much less important than in its heyday.

工业革命改变了欧洲丝绸工业巨大的面貌。由于纺棉技术的创新，纺棉制造业变得越来越便宜。因此，这些技术的创新导致了更昂贵的丝绸产品变得不再成为人们选择主要倾向。然而，这些新的纺织技术提高了产品的效率。在这些新的纺织技术当中，有项用于丝绸绣花技术叫作雅卡尔织机（或称提花机）的发明。而几种桑蚕疾病的流行导致了丝绸产品下滑，特别在法国，丝绸工业再也没有恢复。二十世纪，日本和中国在丝绸产品方面重新获得了早期的地位，而现在的中国再一次成了世界上最大的丝绸生产国。新织物诸如尼龙的兴起削减了丝绸在整个世界的流行，而现在丝绸再一次成了某种稀有奢侈物品，但比最兴盛时期的量要少的多。

Early history

早期的历史 

The appearance of silk

The silkworm cocoon

桑蚕茧

The earliest evidence of silk was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia County, Shanxi, where a silk cocoon was found cut in half by a sharp knife, dating back to between 4000 and 3000 BCE. The species was identified as bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm. Fragments of primitive loom can also be seen from the sites of Hemudu culture in Yuyao, Zhejiang, dated to about 4000 BCE. Scraps of silk were found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou, Zhejiang, dating back to 2700 BCE.[1][2] Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 - c. 1046 BCE).[3]

在陕西夏县的仰韶文化遗址上，研究人员发现了最早的丝绸证据。研究人员在那儿发现了一个被锋利的刀切成两半的蚕茧，而此蚕茧的日期确定在公元前4000年到公元前3000年间。这个物种被鉴定为蚕属家蚕（学名为bombyx mori), 即驯化了的桑蚕。原始的织机碎片也能在浙江余姚的大约公元前4000年的河姆渡遗址上看到。丝绸碎料在浙江湖州市吴兴区钱山漾的公元前2700年的良渚文化遗址上发现过。其它的丝绸碎片在商朝（约公元前1600年至公元前1046年）王陵里也再次发现过。

During the later epoch, the Chinese lost their secret to the Koreans, the Japanese, and later the Indians, as they discovered how to make silk. Allusions to the fabric in the Old Testament show that it was known in western Asia in biblical times.[4] Scholars believe that starting in the 2nd century BCE the Chinese established a commercial network aimed at exporting silk to the West.[4] Silk was used, for example, by the Persian court and its king, Darius III, when Alexander the Great conquered the empire.[4] Even though silk spread rapidly across Eurasia, with the possible exception of Japan its production remained exclusively Chinese for three millennia.

Myths and legends

神话和传说

Detail of an embroidered silk gauze ritual garment from a 4th century BCE, Zhou era tomb at Mashan, Hubei province, China

中国湖北省马山公元前4世纪的周朝坟墓内发现的绣花丝绸薄纱仪服的局部。

The writings of Confucius and Chinese tradition recount that in the 27th century BCE a silk worm's cocoon fell into the tea cup of the empress Leizu.[5] Wishing to extract it from her drink, the young girl of fourteen began to unroll the thread of the cocoon. She then had the idea to weave it. Having observed the life of the silk worm on the recommendation of her husband, the Yellow Emperor, she began to instruct her entourage the art of raising silk worms, sericulture. From this point on, the girl became the goddess of silk in Chinese mythology. Silk would eventually leave China in the hair of a princess promised to a prince of Khotan. This probably occurred in the early 1st century CE.[6] The princess, refusing to go without the fabric she loved, would finally break the imperial ban on silk worm exportation.

孔子和中国传统的著作详细叙述了公元前27世纪，一个桑蚕的蚕茧掉进了皇后嫘祖的茶杯里。嫘祖希望从茶杯中取出蚕茧。这位14岁的小女孩就开始展开蚕茧的丝线。之后，她有了编织蚕丝的想法。在她丈夫黄帝的建议下，她观察了桑蚕的生活并开始教授随行人员饲养桑蚕的技术，即桑蚕的养殖。从这个时刻开始，这位女孩就成了中国神话中的丝绸女神。在许配给和阗王子的公主烦人的坚持下，丝绸最终离开了中国。这个事件可能发生在公元一世纪早期。如果没有所爱的织物，公主就拒绝出嫁。这最终打破了皇帝出口桑蚕的禁令。

Though silk was exported to foreign countries in great amounts, sericulture remained a secret that the Chinese guarded carefully. Consequently, other peoples invented wildly varying accounts of the source of the incredible fabric. In classical antiquity, most Romans, great admirers of the cloth, were convinced that the Chinese took the fabric from tree leaves.[7] This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Younger in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics. Notably, Pliny the Elder knew better. Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth, he wrote in his Natural History "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk."[8]

虽然大量丝绸出口到外国，但养蚕业仍然是中国人小心谨慎而保护的秘密。随之的结果就是，其他民族异想天开地捏造了关于这种令人难以置信的织物来源的各种各样传闻。在古典时代，大部分罗马人——这种绸布的多数仰慕者们相信，中国人是用树叶织出这种织物的。这种看法在卢修斯?厄尼厄斯?塞內加（Lucius Annaeus Seneca）的《菲德拉》和维吉尔（即普布留斯·维吉留斯·马罗Publius Vergilius Maro）的《农事诗集》中得到确认。尤其是，大普林尼（即加伊乌斯·普林尼·塞坤杜斯（Gaius Plinius Secundus）对此知道更多。提到蚕属家蚕（学名为bombyx mori)或蚕蛾，他在《自然史》中写道“它们就像蜘蛛一样织网，而这些网就成了一种女人使用的奢侈布料，称作丝绸。”

Silk usage in Ancient and Medieval China

远古时代和中古时代中国丝绸的用法

In China, silk worm farming was originally restricted to women, and many women were employed in the silk-making industry. Even though some saw the development of a luxury product as useless, silk provoked such a craze among high society that the rules in the Li Ji were used to regulate and limit its use to the members of the imperial family.[3] For approximately a millennium, the right to wear silk was reserved for the emperor and the highest dignitaries. Later, it gradually extended to other classes of Chinese society. Silk began to be used for decorative means and also in less luxurious ways: musical instruments, fishing, and bow-making. Peasants did not have the right to wear silk until the Qing dynasty (1644–1911).[3]

中国的桑蚕养殖原来只有妇女从事，因而许多妇女受雇于丝绸制造行业。即使有人认为一件奢侈产品的发展毫无用处，丝绸还是在社会高层掀起了一股狂潮。 李绩的规定不仅用于管理而且限制丝绸只给皇帝家族成员使用。大约近一千年之久，穿戴丝绸的权力专门留给皇帝和最高阶层之人。之后，丝绸逐渐地渗透到中国社会的其它阶层。丝绸开始用于装饰而且也开始用于更不奢侈的方面：音乐乐器，钓鱼和弓箭制造。直到清朝（1644年至1911年），农民一直没有权力穿戴丝绸。

Woven silk textile from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China,2nd century BCE, Western Han Dynasty

中国湖南省长沙市马王堆一号墓出土公元前2世纪西汉的机织丝绸纺织品。

Paper was one of the greatest discoveries of ancient China. Beginning in the 3rd century BCE paper was made in all sizes with various materials.[9] Silk was no exception, and silk workers had been making paper since the 2nd century BCE. Silk, bamboo, linen, wheat and rice straw were all used differently, and paper made with silk became the first type of luxury paper. Researchers have found an early example of writing done on silk paper in the tomb of a Marchioness who died around 168, in Mawangdui, Hunan. The material was certainly more expensive, but also more practical than bamboo. Treatises on many subjects, including meteorology, medicine, astrology, divinity, and even maps written on silk[10] have been discovered.

纸的发明是中国古代最伟大的发现之一。公元前三世纪开始，人们用各种材料制成各种大小的纸张。丝绸也不例外，而且，自公元2世纪以来，丝绸工人已经制造了丝绸纸张。丝绸，竹子，亚麻，麦杆和稻杆都不同程度地被用于制造纸张，而丝绸制造的纸张成了奢侈纸张的首要类型。在湖南马王堆，一位死于大约公元168年侯爵夫人的坟墓中，研究人员已经找到早期文字书写在绸纸上的例子。这种材料肯定更加昂贵，但也比竹子更加实用。研究人员已经发现许多主题的专著，包括气象学，医学，天文学，神学，甚至地图也画在丝绸上面。

Chinese painting on silk, with playing children wearing silk clothes, by Su Hanchen (active 1130s–1160s), Song Dynasty.

During the Han Dynasty, silk became progressively more valuable in its own right, and became more than simply a material. It was used to pay government officials and compensate citizens who were particularly worthy. By the same token that one would sometimes estimate the price of products according to a certain weight of gold, the length of the silk cloth became a monetary standard in China (in addition to bronze coins). The wealth that silk brought to China stirred up envy in neighbouring peoples. Beginning in the 2nd century BCE the Xiongnu, regularly pillaged the provinces of the Han Chinese for around 250 years. Silk was a common offering by the emperor to these tribes in exchange for peace.

        ". . . the military payrolls tell us that soldiers were paid in bundles of plain silk textiles, which circulated as currency in Han times. Soldiers may well have traded their silk with the nomads who came to the gates of the Great Wall to sell horses and furs."[11]

For more than a millennium, silk remained the principal diplomatic gift of the emperor of China to his neighbours or to his vassals.[3] The use of silk became so important that "silk" (糸) soon constituted one of the principal radicals of Chinese script.

一千多年以来，丝绸一直就是中国皇帝给他的邻国和属国的主要外交礼物。丝绸的用处变得如此重要，“糸”这个字不久也组成了中国汉字的主要偏旁之一。

Broadly speaking, the use of silk was regulated by a very precise code in China. For example, the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty imposed upon bureaucrats the use of a particular colour according to their different functions in society. Under the Ming, silk began to be used in a series of accessories: handkerchiefs, wallets, belts, or even an embroidered piece of fabric displaying dozens of animals, real or mythical. These fashion accessories remained associated with a particular position: there was a specific bonnet for warriors, for judges, for nobles, and others for religious use. The women of high Chinese society heeded codified practices and used silk in their garments to which they added countless motifs.[3] A 13th century work, the Jinpingmei, gives a description of one such motif:

大致来讲，丝绸的使用在中国受到非常细致的法规的管理。比如，在唐朝和宋朝，根据官员们在社会中的不同职责而强加给他们特定的颜色。在明朝统治下，丝绸开始被用于一系列的装饰用品：手帕，钱包，皮带，或甚至一块展示几十个逼真的或神秘动物的绣花织物。这些时尚的装饰用品仍然和特别的职位有关：有一种特定的颏下系细绳的帽子为战士，法官和贵族们制造，而其它的帽子则为宗教使用。中国高层社会的妇女非常注意整理经验并用在她们的衣服上用丝绸添加无数用于装饰的设计。《金瓶梅》对一件13世纪的织物作品中这样的装饰设计做了如下描述：

“     Golden lotus having a quilted backgammon pattern, double-folded, adorned with savage geese pecking at a landscape of flowers and roses; the dress' right figure had a floral border with buttons in the form of bees or chrysanthemums.[3]

“金莲有一条缝制的15子游戏图案，双褶，饰有野鹅啄鲜花和玫瑰景致的裙子；这条裙右边的图案是以蜜蜂或菊花形式的纽扣做装饰花边。”

中国丝绸及其贸易

A number of archaeological discoveries showed that silk had become a luxury material appreciated in foreign countries well before the opening of the Silk Road by the Chinese. For example, silk has been found in the Valley of the Kings in a tomb of a mummy dating from 1070 BCE.[12] First the Greeks, then the Romans began to speak of the Seres (people of silk), a term to designate the inhabitants of the far-off kingdom, China. According to certain historians, the first Roman contact with silk was that of the legions of the governor of Syria, Crassus. At the Battle of Carrhae, near to the Euphrates, the legions were said to be so surprised by the brilliance of the banners of Parthia that they fled.[12]

许多考古发现表明，丝绸远在中国人开辟丝绸之路前就已经成了外国人所欣赏的一种奢侈用品。比如，考古人员已经在埃及帝王谷一具公元前1070年的木乃伊坟墓里发现了丝绸。首先是希腊人，然后是罗马人开始讲到丝绸之地的人民（丝民）。这个素语用来称呼遥远王国——中国的居民。根据某些历史学家所说，首次与丝绸取得联系的罗马人是叙利亚执政者——克拉苏的古罗马军团内的人。据说，在卡雷战役的幼发拉底河附近，古罗马军团非常惊奇他们逃跑过的帕提亚旗帜的鲜亮。

The main silk roads between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D.

公元前500年到公元500年之间的主要丝绸之路。

The silk road toward the west was opened by the Chinese in the 2nd century CE. The main road left from Xi'an, going either to the north or south of the Taklamakan desert, one of the most arid in the world, before crossing the Pamir Mountains. The caravans that employed this method to exchange silk with other merchants were generally quite large, including from 100 to 500 people as well as camels and yaks carrying around 140 kg (300 lb) of merchandise. They linked to Antioch and the coasts of the Mediterranean, about one year's travel from Xi'an. In the South, a second route went by Yemen, Burma, and India before rejoining the northern route.[13][14]

中国人在公元二世纪开辟了通往西方的丝绸之路。主要的道路就是从西安出发，要么走塔克拉玛干沙漠（世界上最干旱地区之一）的北部，要么走塔克拉玛干沙漠的南部，然后再跨越帕米尔高原。一般来讲，那些利用这种方式来和其他商人交换丝绸的旅行队的人很多，包括100到500人不等，还有扛着大约140公斤（300磅）货物的骆驼和牦牛。这些旅行队和安提阿以及地中海的沿海地区连接在了一起。从西安到这些地方大概需要一年的旅行时间。在中国南部，第二条路线通过也门、缅甸和印度，然后重新加入北方路线。

Not long after the conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE regular commerce began between the Romans and Asia, marked by the Roman appetite for silk cloth coming from the Far East, which was then resold to the Romans by the Parthians. The Roman Senate tried in vain to prohibit the wearing of silk, for economic reasons as well as moral ones. The import of Chinese silk resulted in vast amounts of gold leaving Rome, to such an extent that silk clothing was perceived as a sign of decadence and immorality.

公元前30年，埃及被征服后不久，古罗马和亚洲之间的正常贸易开始了。这种贸易以罗马人对来自远东丝绸的欲望为市场，之后由帕提亚人再重新出售给罗马人。罗马元老院禁止穿戴丝绸的企图白白浪费了，因为经济，还有道德原因。中国丝绸的进口导致了大量的黄金流出了罗马。后来，以致到了这样一种程度，丝绸衣服被认为是一种颓废和不道德的迹象。

“ I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes. ... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body.     ”

“我能看见被称作服装的丝绸服装，如果这些料子没有把人的身体掩藏起来的话，甚至没有把某人的颓废掩藏起来的话。…可怜的成群女佣在一块儿劳作，那么奸妇可能穿过她那薄薄的裙子看到，因此她的丈夫再也不比任何外人或陌生人更熟悉他妻子的身体。”

—Seneca the Younger, Declamations Vol. I.[15]

——卢修斯?厄尼厄斯?塞內加（Lucius Annaeus Seneca），《演讲》第一册

Spread of production

丝绸生产的传播

Sassanid inspired two-sided silk cloth, with winged lions and tree of life, from the early Islamic period in Iran, National Museum of Iran.

伊朗国家博物馆内伊朗早期伊斯兰阶段的萨珊王朝授意的双面绸，饰有翅膀的狮子和生命树。

Although silk was well known in Europe and most of Asia, China was able to keep a near monopoly on silk production. The monopoly was defended by an imperial decree, condemning to death anyone attempting to export silkworms or their eggs. Only around the year 300 CE did a Japanese expedition succeed in taking some silkworm eggs and four young Chinese girls, who were forced to teach their captors the art of sericulture.[16] Techniques of sericulture were subsequently introduced to Japan on a larger scale by frequent diplomatic exchanges between the 8th century and 9th centuries.

虽然丝绸在整个欧洲和大部分亚洲地区闻名遐迩，但中国在丝绸产品方面能保持一种几近垄断的地位。这种垄断地位受到一则帝国法令的保护：判处任何企图出口桑蚕或桑蚕卵之人死刑。只有大约在公元300年，一个日本考察队成功地虏走了一些桑蚕卵和四位年轻中国女孩。这些女孩被迫教授俘获她们的人养殖桑蚕的技术。结果，在8世纪和9世纪期间，养蚕技术通过频繁外交交换更大规模地被引进日本。

Starting in the 4th century BCE silk began to reach the West by merchants who would exchange it for gold, ivory, horses or precious stones. Up to the frontiers of the Roman Empire, silk became a monetary standard for estimating the value of different products. Hellenistic Greece appreciated the high quality of the Chinese goods and made efforts to plant mulberry trees and breed silkworms in the Mediterranean basin. Sassanid Persia controlled the trade of silk destined for Europe and Byzantium.

从公元前四世纪开始，商人们将丝绸交换黄金，象牙，马匹或贵重的石头而使其到达了西方社会。通往罗马帝国的边境上，丝绸成了估计不同产品价值的货币标准。希腊化时代的希腊欣赏中国物品的高质量并不遗余力地在地中海盆地种植桑树和饲养桑蚕。萨珊王朝的波斯控制着指定运往欧洲和拜占庭的丝绸贸易。

The monks sent by Justinian give the silkworms to the emperor.

查士丁尼一世派出的修道士送桑蚕给皇帝。

According to story by Procopius[17], it was not until 552 CE that the Byzantine emperor Justinian obtained the first silkworm eggs. He had sent two Nestorian monks to Central Asia, and they were able to smuggle silkworm eggs to him hidden in rods of bamboo. While under the monks' care, the eggs hatched, though they did not cocoon before arrival. The Byzantine church was thus able to make fabrics for the emperor, with the intention of developing a large silk industry in the Eastern Roman Empire, using techniques learned from the Sassanids. These gynecia had a legal monopoly on the fabric, but the empire continued to import silk from other major urban centres on the Mediterranean.[18] The magnificence of the Byzantine techniques was not a result of the manufacturing process, but instead of the meticulous attention paid to the execution and decorations. The weaving techniques they used were taken from Egypt. The first diagrams of semple looms appeared in the 5th century.[19]

根据普罗科匹厄斯的故事，直到公元552年，拜占庭皇帝查士丁尼一世才获得了首批桑蚕卵。他已经派出了聂斯脱利的修道士到中亚，因而他们能把桑蚕卵藏在竹罐里偷运给他。而在这些修道士的照顾下，虽然它们没有在到达之前结茧，但蚕卵还是孵出来了。随着在东罗马帝国发展一个巨大的丝绸行业的意图以及使用从萨珊王朝学到的技术，拜占庭教堂因此能给皇帝制造织物。这些修道士在织物方面有着合法的控制权，但东罗马帝国继续从地中海的其它城市中心进口丝绸。拜占庭技术的重要意义在于，并不是制造加工的结果，而是对表演和装饰所付出的谨小慎微的注意。他们使用的编织技术取自埃及。十五世纪出现了首批简单织机的简图。

The Arabs, with their widening conquests, spread sericulture across the shores of the Mediterranean. Included in these were Africa, Spain and Sicily, all of which developed an important silk industry.[20] The mutual interactions among Byzantine and Muslim silk-weaving centers of all levels of quality, with imitations made in Andalusia and Lucca, among other cities, have made the identification and date of rare surviving examples difficult to pinpoint.[21]

阿拉伯人凭借逐渐扩大的征服而把养蚕业传播到整个中海沿岸。这些地区还包括非洲，西班牙和西西里岛。所有这些国家和地区发展成了一个重要的丝绸工业。拜占庭和穆斯林各种质量的织丝中心彼此影响，其它城市当中还有安达鲁西亚（西班牙的一个自治区）和卢卡（意大利的一个城市）的仿制品，已经使得极少幸存下来样品的鉴定和日期很难准确描述。

While the Chinese lost their monopoly on silk production, they were able re-established themselves as major silk supplier (during the Tang dynasty) and industrialize their production in a large scale (during the Song dynasty)[22]. China continued to export high-quality fabric to Europe and the Near East along the silk road.

与此同时，中国人失去了丝绸生产的垄断地位，不过，他们能重新建立作为主要丝绸提供者（在唐朝期间）并大规模工业化（在宋朝期间）丝绸产品。中国继续沿着丝绸之路向欧洲和近东出口高质量的丝绸。

Much later, following the Crusades, techniques of silk production began to spread across Western Europe. In 1147 while Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos was focusing all his efforts on the Second Crusade, the Norman king Roger II of Sicily attacked Corinth and Thebes, two important centres of Byzantine silk production. They took the crops and silk production infrastructure, and deported all the workers to Palermo, thereby causing the Norman silk industry to flourish.[23] The sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 brought decline to the city and its silk industry, and many artisans left the city in the early 13th century.[20] Italy developed a large domestic silk industry after 2000 skilled weavers came from Constantinople. Many also chose to settle in Avignon to furnish the popes of Avignon.

之后很长时间，随着十字军东征，丝绸生产的技术开始向整个西欧传播。1147年，拜占庭皇帝曼努埃尔一世正集中所有的努力进行第二次东征，诺（尔）曼国王西西里岛的罗杰二世袭击了拜占庭帝国的两个重要丝绸产品中心——科林斯和底比斯。他们虏取了粮食和丝绸生产基础结构，并把所有的工人驱逐出境去了巴勒莫（西西里岛西北部城市），因此，这也导致了诺尔曼丝绸工业繁荣起来。1204年，第四次十字军东征对君士坦丁堡的洗劫导致了该城以及其丝绸行业的衰落，而许多技术工人在十三世纪早期离开了这里。而两千名来自君士坦丁堡的熟练织布工到了意大利之后，意大利发展了一个巨大的国内丝绸行业。许多人也选择在阿维尼翁（法国东南部城市）定居而为阿维尼翁教皇们提供丝绸产品。

The sudden boom of the silk industry in the Italian state of Lucca, starting in the 11th and 12th centuries was due to much Sicilian, Jewish, and Greek settlement, alongside many other immigrants from neighbouring cities in southern Italy.[24] With the loss of many Italian trading posts in the Orient, the import of Chinese styles drastically declined. Gaining momentum, in order to satisfy the rich and powerful bourgeoisie's demands for luxury fabrics, the cities of Lucca, Genoa, Venice and Florence were soon exporting silk to all of Europe. In 1472 there were 84 workshops and at least 7000 craftsmen in Florence alone.

意大利卢卡国丝绸工业的突然繁荣开始于十一世纪和十二世纪。这是由于西西里人，犹太人和希腊人移民到了意大利南部沿着许多其他移民的周边城市。随着东方国家里许多意大利贸易站的消失，中式丝绸的进口急剧下降。由于获得了势头，为了满足富人和强大的资产阶级对奢侈织物的需求，卢卡、热那亚、威尼斯和佛罗伦萨市不久开始向欧洲所有地区出口丝绸。1472年，单单佛罗伦萨市就有84家作坊以及至少7000名纺织工人。

Reciprocal influences

相互影响

Silk was made using various breeds of lepidopterans, both wild and domestic. While wild silks were produced in many countries, there is no doubt that the Chinese were the first to begin production on such a large scale, having the most effective species for silk production, the Bombyx mandarina and its domesticated descendent B. mori. Chinese sources claim the existence of a machine to unwind silkworm cocoons in 1090. The cocoons were placed in a large basin of hot water, the silk would leave the cauldron by tiny guiding rings, and would be wound onto a large spool, thanks to a backwards and forward motion.[9] Little information exists about spinning techniques in use in China. The spinning wheel, in all likelihood moved by hand, was known by the beginning of the Christian era. The first accepted image of a spinning wheel appears in 1210. There is an image of a silk spinning machine powered by a water wheel that dates to 1313.

丝绸由各种野生和家养鳞翅目昆虫孵化的卵而逐渐形成。而且许多国家生产野生丝绸，毫无疑问，中国人由于拥有丝绸生产最有效的物种，蚕属野桑蚕（学名Bombyx mandarina）和其驯养的后代蚕属家蚕（学名Bombyx mori）而首批开始大规模生产丝绸。中文资料宣称，1090年中国已有一种抽出蚕茧丝线的机器。蚕茧被放在一大盆热水里，丝线通过微小的指导环而离开大锅，并由于前后运动而被绕在一个大线轴上。中国保存下来有关使用的纺织技术信息很少。公元前后，最可能用手摇动的纺车开始闻名。1210年，第一部公众所接受的纺车图像出现。一部水轮转动丝绸纺车图像的日期确定为1313年。

French silk brocade-Lyon 1760-1770

1760—1770年里昂的法国丝锦缎

More information is known about the looms used. The Nung Sang Chi Yao, or Fundamentals of Agriculture and Sericulture, compiled around 1210, is rich with pictures and descriptions, many pertaining to silk.[25] It repeatedly claims the Chinese looms to be far superior to all others. It speaks of two types of loom that leave the worker's arms free: the draw loom, which is of Eurasian origin, and the pedal loom which is attributed to East Asian origins. There are many diagrams originate in the 12th and 13th centuries. When examined closely, many similarities between Eurasian machines can be drawn. Since the Jin dynasty, the existence of silk damasks has been well recorded, and since the 2nd century BCE, four-shafted looms and other innovations allowed the creation of silk brocades.

人们已知更多关于用过的织机信息。大约1210年编撰的《农桑辑要》或《农业和养蚕业的基本原理》有着丰富的图片和说明，而且许多和丝绸有关。这本书再三强调，中国的织机比其它所有的织机都要高级的多。书中讲到两种不用工人手臂的织机：源于欧亚的拉花机和认为源于东亚的踏板织机。还有许多创造于十二和十三世纪的织机简图。当观察地更近些，人们可以得出欧亚织机之间的许多相似性。自晋朝以来，丝缎的存在已经有了很好的记载，而自公元前二世纪以来，四轴织机和其它发明使得丝锦缎的创造成了可能。