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Volume 4, Number 1. Learner Support Services for Online Students:Scaffolding for success Stacey Ludwig-HardmanWestern Governors University, USA Joanna C. DunlapUniversity of Colorado at Denver, USA AbstractA critical component of an effective retention program for online students is a learner supportservices program. While many factors contribute to attrition, at the top of the list are level ofinteraction and support. To this end, some students in distance learning programs and coursesreport feelings of isolation, lack of self-direction and management, and eventual decrease inmotivation levels. This article describes the types of learner support services strategies that caneffectively address these retention challenges. Examples from Western Governors University(WGU) are provided to describe these strategies in action.Keywords: learner support; online learning; scaffolding; self-directed learning; isolation;learning community; advisingIntroductionDistance learning opportunities for students have skyrocketed in popularity. Every year, moreuniversities are starting online programs. Much of this increase is due to the demands of thelearner audience who are intrigued by distance education, mostly because they face a number ofobstacles that make conventional, brick-and-mortar educational options unviable:• They live in remote geographic areas• Conveniently located institutions offer limited program options• Their work schedules conflict with campus-bound course schedules. Thisincludes people who work shifts, travel frequently on business, work long hours,and/ or are in the armed forces• Personal and family commitments conflict with campus-bound course schedules.This includes having children at home and taking care of aging parentsThese obstacles make online learning opportunities attractive – in fact, the obstacles create abuilt-in audience for online education providers. However, drop out rates associated with distancelearning typically range from 20 to 50 percent (Brawer, 1996; Carr, 2000; ERIC, 1984; Kerka,1995; Parker, 1999). More often than not, distance learning programs report greater attrition ratesthan traditional on-campus programs. The challenge for online education providers therefore, is
Page 2 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success2not so much how to recruit students, but how to retain them once they have begun. Learnersupport services are thus a critical component of an effective retention program.A Challenge for Online Education ProvidersWhile many factors contribute to online student attrition, at the top of the list are level ofinteraction and support (Moore and Kearsley, 1996). According to Abrami and Bures (1996)some students in distance learning programs and courses report feelings of isolation, lack of self-direction and management, and eventual decreases in motivation levels. These factors aresupported by Tinto’s (1997) model of institutional departure with its central notion that studentpersistence is strongly predicted by their degree of academic integration (e.g., performance,academic self esteem, identity as a student, etc.) and social integration (e.g., personal interaction,connection to academic community, etc.).One of the most consistent problems associated with distance learning environments is a sense ofisolation due to lack of interaction (Bennett, Priest and Macpherson, 1999; Harasim, Hiltz, Telesand Turoff, 1995). This sense of isolation is linked with attrition, instructional ineffectiveness,failing academic achievement (Booher and Seiler, 1982), and negative attitudes and overalldissatisfaction with the learning experience (Thompson, 1990). Online learners can easily feelisolated if they do not feel connected to both the greater (university-level) and local (program-and course-level) social context (Abrahamson, 1998; Besser and Donahue, 1996; Brown, 1996;Rahm and Reed, 1998). This can negatively affect retention – students may drop out of a programor course because they do not feel part of a community (DeVries and Wheeler, 1996).Closely associated with retention is student satisfaction with distance delivered courses. Whilesome studies have reported high satisfaction from learners in online courses (i.e., Hill, 1999; Hill,Rezabek and Murry, 1998; Wayland, Swift and Wilson, 1994), others have indicated that studentsoften experience frustration with distance delivered courses because they do not possess the skillsneeded to be successful (Ritchie and Newby, 1989; Swift, Wilson and Wayland, 1997). In fact,students’ feelings of isolation can be compounded if they are ill equipped to deal with thedemands of studying at a distance. Some students do not possess is the self-directed skill set,specifically: self-discipline, the ability to work alone, time management, learning independence,the ability to develop a plan for completing work, and so on (Burak, 1993; Dunlap and Grabinger,2003; Hancock, 1993; Piskurich, 2002). Although often described as a hallmark of adulthood,some people are not self-directed learners (Kerka, 1994). In specifying “successful onlinelearner” guidelines and assessment tools, online education providers list self-direction as aprimaryqualityofsuccessfulonlinelearners(e.g.,http://www.Colorado.edu/cewww/Fac101/success4.htm, http://ace.coe.wayne.edu/guidelines.htmlandhttp://www.ion.Illinois.edu/IONresources/onlineLearning/StudentProfile.html).Compounding the challenge faced by students who feel isolated and disconnected is that self-directed learning skills are developed in a social context (Dunlap and Grabinger, 2003; Kerka,1999; Long, 1994) through a variety of human-oriented interactions with peers and colleagues,teams, informal social networks, and communities of practice (Kerka, 1994).Clearly, there is an expectation in distance and online learning programs that learners take on ahigh level of responsibility and initiative for their own learning (McLoughlin and Marshall,2000). As Knowles described in his text on self-directed learning (Knowles, 1975, p. 15),“students entering these programs without having learned the skills of self-directed inquiry willexperience anxiety, frustration, and often failure . . .” To be successful, learners need the skillsrequired for effective online learning, and those skills need to be explicitly taught and supported
Page 3 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success3in the online learning environment. These challenges to the retention of distance learners,interestingly enough, have something in common: they seem to hinge on learners’ need forsignificant support in the distance learning environment through interaction with others (e.g.,peers, instructors, and learner support services personnel).Scaffolding as a Conceptual Framework for Learner Support ServicesTait (2000) describes the central functions of learner support services for students in distanceeducation settings as cognitive, affective, and systemic. Most descriptions of learner supportservices focus on systemic characteristics – access to the administrative processes and proceduresof the educational provider in a timely and accurate manner (e.g., how to register for courses,tracking individual progress on a degree plan, etc.). What is often ignored, however, is thecognitive function of learner support services, such as guidance, counseling, assessment,coaching, etc. A focus on cognitive outcomes – in particular that learners have various needs,including the need to belong, to interact with each other, and to be a part of a community(Maslow, 1987; Stacey, 1999; Vygotsky, 1978) – leads to creating a learner support servicesprogram “where students feel at home, where they feel valued, and which they find manageable”(Tait, 2000, p. 289). Providing this type of support requires more than a technical infrastructure toserve up Web pages on demand – it requires three interrelated elements (Thorpe, 2001):• Identity. The learner has the opportunity to interact with learner support servicespersonnel on a one-to-one basis• Individualization. The interaction that the learner has with learner supportservices personnel is individualized, based on the specific needs and goals of thelearner• Interpersonal interaction. The interaction is mutual and reciprocal, withlearning and performance as goals rather than simply information deliveryIn a learner support services environment, these elements can be realized through the practice ofscaffolding.The concept, or metaphor, of scaffolding (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976) is grounded in thedevelopmental theories of Vygotsky (1978), specifically his concept of assisted learning asdescribed by the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD). The ZPD is:. . . the difference between the child’s developmental level as determined by theindependent problem solving and the higher level of potential development asdetermined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaborationwith more capable peers. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86)Although the concept of ZPD and the scaffolding metaphor were originally used to describe childdevelopment, the current view of the ZPD has extended beyond child-adult and novice-expertinteraction to include a view that describes the ZPD as “an opportunity for learning with and fromothers that applies potentially to all participants, and not simply to the less skillful orknowledgeable” (Wells as cited in Anton, 1999). As such, the notions of the ZPD and scaffoldingare helpful in considering the support services needs of learners in distance learning settings.Learner support services, if focused on the cognitive features that Tait (2000) describes, can serve
Page 4 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success• Provides structure4to assist performance through the ZPD by promoting a potential for success in a distance learningsetting founded on interaction between learners and support services personnel.Scaffolding involves providing learners with more structure during the early stages of a learningactivity and gradually turning responsibility over to them as they internalize and master the skillsneeded to engage in higher cognitive functioning (Palincsar, 1986; Rosenshine and Meister,1992). Scaffolding has a number of important characteristics (Greenfield, 1984; McLoughlin andMitchell, 2000; Wood et al., 1976) to consider when determining the types of learner supportservices distance students may need:• Functions as a tool• Extends the range of the learner• Allows the learner to accomplish a task that would otherwise not be possible• Helps to ensure the learner’s success• Motivates the learner• Reduces learner frustration• Is used, when needed, to help the learner, and can be removed when the learnercan take on more responsibilityLooking at this list it is clear that the practice of scaffolding is an inherently social process inwhich the interaction takes place in a collaborative context. The remainder of this articledescribes how the Western Governors University’s learner support services program uses acollaborative context (such as learning communities, advising, and other interactions) to achievethe level of scaffolding needed to address the retention challenges of isolation and lack of neededself-directed learning skills.Learner Support Services Designed to Support Learners’ Self-Direction and InteractionIn order to provide learner support services that help students successfully participate in onlinelearning courses and programs, Western Governors University (WGU) has employed strategiesthat reflect the collaborative context needed for effective scaffolding. These interactive strategies,which provide the scaffolding needed to enhance students’ self-directed learning skills and reducetheir feelings of isolation, are summarized in Table 1.
Page 5 5Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for successTable 1. Learner Support Services Strategies for Self-direction and InteractionThe Recruitment and Admissions Process: Diagnosing fit between learner and education providerLearner support services start with making sure that there is an appropriate fit between thestudents’ learning and professional goals and current capabilities with the offerings and structureof the education provider’s online programs. This interaction with potential students not onlyhelps them feel immediately connected with the learning community, but the diagnostic activitieshelp them reflect on their learning goals and strategies, a process important to self-directedlearning. Recruitment practices can have a big impact on a student’s ability to self-assess whetherthere is a fit, and for the education provider to do the same. For example, WGU, a unique,competency-based institution, recognizes that learners in their distance delivered degree programsneed to possess a high level of self-direction and interest in connecting with other learners if theyare to be successful. WGU uses specific tools in the recruitment process – such as an intakeinterview, self-assessment, diagnostic pre-assessment, and Learning Orientation Questionnaire –to determine a learner’s fit with the institution.Intake InterviewEnrollment counselors and other learner support services personnel must be trained to helplearners identify their learning needs by asking them questions that require reflection on theircurrent competencies and their desired goals in order to better identify the knowledge gap andplan for instructional opportunities that will address the gap. All new WGU students are requiredto complete an intake interview with an enrollment counselor. During the intake interview, anenrollment counselor contacts the student via phone to discuss the program in greater detail, helpthe student assess fit with the institution, and clarify expectations regarding the personal and
Page 6 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success6professional commitment needed to succeed. The enrollment counselors ask the following typesof questions:• Why is the learner pursuing higher education? Is it for personal enrichment,advancement in the job market, retooling, retraining, or changing careers?• Is the learner technology literate? Does the learner have the necessaryprerequisite skills to successfully use communication tools such as email,threaded discussions, and chat?• How many hours per week is the learner willing to commit to studies? Does thelearner have the time management skills necessary to block out time to study?• What is the learner’s preferred method of learning? Is the learner comfortablewith independent study or does the learner require the structure of instructor-facilitated courses?• What support structures does the learner have at home or in the workplace?• What challenges or distractions will the learner encounter (family, work, etc.)? Isthe learner willing to treat education as a top priority?• Has the learner taken distance learning courses in the past? If so, what were thelearner’s experiences?The intake interview questions are structured to encourage the learner to articulate theirindividual needs and goals and, with the help of the enrollment counselor, assess whether WGUis a good fit.Self AssessmentWGU requires all learners to complete a self-assessment of their competencies gained throughprior work and educational experiences. Using a Web-enabled survey,(http://www.wgu.edu/wgu/student/questionnaire.asp), learners are asked to rank their level ofcompetence from zero (no competence) to three (expert competence) against the competencystatements or learning objectives for the degree program. The self-assessment also asks thelearner to identify short- and long-term goals, strengths, areas for improvement, and preferredmethods of communication.Diagnostic Pre-AssessmentAll newly admitted WGU students are required to complete a Web-delivered diagnostic pre-assessment of their competencies in relation to the program requirements. The pre-assessment isused as an advising tool to identify the learner’s strengths and areas for improvement.Learning Orientation QuestionnaireThe Learning Orientation Questionnaire (LOQ), developed by The Training Place(http://www.trainingplace.com), is an online survey that identifies a learner’s orientation to learn
Page 7 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success7by looking at three psychological factors that influence learning and performance. These factorsconsider 1) the learner’s emotional investment in learning and performance; 2) strategic self-directedness; and 3) independence or autonomy – all of which are important to effective self-directed learning. These three factors are successful learning attributes and describe how learnersgenerally want or intend to approach learning situationally (The Training Place, 2001).Learning orientations are different from learning styles because orientations emphasize thedominant power of emotions and intentions in learning. “Learning orientations . . . characterizehow individuals differ in the ways they choose to plan, set, perform, and attain goals, intend tocommit and expend effort, and subsequently experience learning and achievement” (Martinez,2000, p. 285). The four learning orientations that the LOQ describes are:• Transforming. WGU learner support services personnel typically recommendindependent learning resources for transforming learners because they are highlyself-motivated and self-directed and assume responsibility for their learningprogress and goals.• Performing. WGU learner support services personnel recommend a mix ofindependent learning resources and instructor-facilitated courses for performinglearners because they typically respond better to short-term goals and semi-structured learning environments.• Conforming. WGU learner support services personnel recommend instructor-facilitated courses to conforming learners because they typically lack the self-motivation and direction to learn independently and prefer structuredenvironments.• Resistant. WGU has not encountered a resistant learner at this time, but wouldprobably counsel a resistant learner out of a distance-delivered program.Resistant learners frequently fail to meet formal learning requirements andexpectations.By providing higher levels of scaffolding through structure and frequent feedback early in thelearners’ programs, WGU learner support services personnel demonstrate their commitment tohelp learners move from conforming to performing and from performing to transforming learnerorientations. Learner support services personnel assist learners in the development of their self-directed learning skills by encouraging long term goal setting, development of time managementskills, self-assessment of learning progress, and greater learning autonomy.WGU learner support services personnel utilize the outcomes of the intake interview, self-assessment, diagnostic pre-assessment, and Learning Orientation Questionnaire to predict theextent to which a learner will be successful in WGU programs and to develop the learner’spersonal learning plan. There are times when learner support services personnel recognize that astudent is not a good fit for WGU’s distance delivered, competency-based programs and thoselearners may be counseled to consider other educational options. When there is a disconnectbetween the learner’s goals and priorities and the level of commitment required to be successfulin a program, a learner is apt to be dissatisfied and may quit the program or discourage othersfrom considering the institution.
Page 8 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success8Orientation to the Online Learning ExperienceMany universities are taking a proactive approach to improving retention, and research bears outthe value of a mandatory orientation program (Brawer, 1996; Noel and Levitz, 2000). Anorientation program is an education provider’s first opportunity to build a community withlearners who have actually committed to pursuing their educational goals with the institution.To be effective, an orientation program needs to provide direction and support for new learnerswho may be uncomfortable in the distance learning environment. For example, during the earlystages of WGU’s four week long orientation course, learners are provided with a high level ofstructure as they become oriented to the community, communication tools, and learning skillsneeded to work in an online learning environment. As learners begin to show a higher level ofcomfort with, and interaction in, the environment, the orientation facilitator then encourageslearners to take greater responsibility for course content by leading discussions and providingpeer feedback. Krauth and Carbajal (1999) further suggest that an orientation should: (a) givestudents a sense of what it is like to be a distance or online learner; (b) offer tips for beingsuccessful in an online learning environment; (c) define technical requirements and prerequisiteskills; and (d) describe the steps to access online courses – preferably providing opportunities topractice accessing and navigating through a course. Finding these suggestions to be useful, WGUprovides additional information in its orientation courses: (a) suggestions on how learners cancreate a learning space, develop a study routine, and manage their time assuming a minimum of10-15 hours per week for their studies; (b) an introduction to research at a distance and how toaccess the institution’s learning resources and e-library; and (c) an introduction to communicationtools and skills that will be necessary for students to actively participate in learning communitiesbeyond the orientation course.WGU’s orientation course is an intense introduction to distance learning and WGU’scompetency-based model of education. By the end of the course, learners are acclimated to thelearning community and have practiced applying the self-directed learning skills necessary to besuccessful in a distance learning environment.One-On-One Advising. . . I just received your note with my degree completion; “Alleluia and Amen” isright! It’s finally finished and I need for you to know that without your help andencouragement, it would not have happened! I don’t know how to thank you. Itwas one of the best days of my life and I shall never forget the hours you spentwith me on the phone as you poured over [my degree plan] trying to keep me ontrack. I was overwhelmed trying to figure out the classes I needed. Duringdifficult classes I would say, “I can’t do this; I’m not going to make it.” But youkept the faith in me. Because my position within the company I work for requireda degree, I felt that I was merely complying with that requirement. However, afew days ago I received a 10% pay increase as a result of obtaining mydegree...Thank you for everything you’ve done for me. Excerpt of a letter from a distance learner to her advisor The positive influence advising can have on distance learners’ ability to successfully fulfill theireducational goals has been well documented (Feasley, 1983; Hezel and Dirr, 1991; Paulet, 1988;Thompson, 1989), and no more eloquently stated than by the learner who wrote the excerpt
Page 9 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success9above. Therefore, a critical learner support service is provision of one-on-one access to advisors(Krauth and Carbajal, 1999). Advisors support learners by helping them identify human andmaterial resources for learning, choose and implement learning strategies, and evaluate learningoutcomes. Learners may receive ongoing assistance in such areas as planning academic programs,solving instructional problems, coping with the distance education process, and building skills forcareer advancement and job hunting. These interactions help students feel connected to theinstitution while scaffolding self-directness.WGU’s advisors – who are members of the WGU faculty – are called mentors and they workone-on-one with students. Mentors provide individualized guidance to learners in dealing withconcerns that influence a) their pursuit of personal and learning goals at a distance; and b) theirability to be more self-directed in their learning. Mentors scaffold student learning by providingthe highest level of structure at the beginning of a learner’s program through the development ofan individualized, detailed Academic Action Plan. Mentors utilize the items gathered during theadmissions process – data from the intake interview, self-assessment, diagnostic pre-assessment,and Learning Orientation Questionnaire – to develop the Academic Action Plan that provides aroadmap for the learner’s academic program including information about learning resources andassessment dates. Depending on individual learner’s needs, mentors provide various levels ofscaffolding by:• Encouraging learners to articulate their learning goals and plans. In the beginninglearners need help developing their learning plan and establishing short-termgoals so that they gain the skills necessary to manage their goals and plans laterin their programs.• Helping learners understand their learning orientations, strengths, and areas forimprovement early in their programs so that they can use this information todevelop their plans, goals, and assessment of their learning progress.• Advising learners on the exploration and selection of learning opportunities thatwill meet their needs during the initial development of their learning plans. Later,learners will take greater responsibility for identifying their learning resources.• Guiding learners as they progress toward established goals and encouraging themto evaluate their own progress.As the mentoring relationship evolves, learners take greater responsibility for their learning goalsand strategies. When less support is required, mentors find that they scaffold learners by offeringacknowledgment, positive feedback, and encouragement; being an early warning system forunnoted obstacles or potential problems; providing assistance in clarifying and validating learningplans; and by functioning as a responsive problem-solver/ trouble-shooter to assist whenacademic or administrative issues arise.Access to a Community of LearnersLearning is a function of the activity, context, and culture in which it occurs – i.e., it is situated(Wenger, 1998). Successful completion of and satisfaction with an academic experience isdirectly related to students’ sense of belonging and connection to the program and courses (Tinto,1975). Tinto’s (1997) model of institutional departure is one of the most widely recognizedstudent retention models which posits that, “other things being equal, the lower the degree of
Page 10 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success10one’s social and intellectual integration into the academic and social communities of the college,the greater the likelihood of departure. Conversely, the greater one’s integration, the greater thelikelihood of persistence” (p. 116). Many of the same motivational effects are evident incontemporary distance education environments, including the same tendency for students to dropout if they lack social interaction with the program (Moore and Kearsley, 1996). Social learningexperiences, such as peer teaching, group projects, debates, discussion, and other activities thatpromote knowledge construction in a social context, allow learners to observe and subsequentlyemulate other students’ models of successful learning. “Successful self-directed learners appear tobe highly aware of context in the sense of placing their learning within a social setting in whichadvice, information, and the skill modeling provided by other learners are crucial conditions forself-directed learning” (Brookfield, 1986, p. 44).WGU has found that social interaction is a critical component of successful programs andtherefore encourages the development of online learning communities. A learning community canbe defined as a group of people, connected via technology mediated communication, whoactively engage one another in collaborative learner-centered activities to intentionally foster thecreation of knowledge, while sharing a number of values and practices, including diversity,mutual appropriation, and progressive discourse. Simply requiring learner interaction inasynchronous environments does not promote a sense of community (Lowell and Persichitte,2000). WGU has recognized that it cannot force a sense of community through the quantity ofinteraction, so it strives to support community development by focusing on the nature and qualityof interactions.All of WGU’s students have access to a learning community based on the program in which theyare enrolled. The learners were introduced to the tools and skills required to actively participate inthe community during the orientation course, so most are comfortable with the technology andprimarily need support accessing the community itself. Again, WGU mentors provide the greatestscaffolding when new learners are introduced to the community. Mentors invite the learners tojoin the community and provide detailed instructions on how to access resources, navigate thecommunity, and communicate with other learners via threaded discussions and online chats thatare organized by mentors around specific topic areas. As learners move from the periphery of thecommunity to its center, they become more active and engaged with the culture and hence assumethe role of expert or ‘old-timer.’ This process is referred to as legitimate peripheral participation(Lave and Wenger, 1991) and it is an important step in the development of learning communitybecause the expert learners then scaffold new learners as they get acquainted with the community.Expert learners host their own chats and threaded discussions, and provide feedback to mentorsabout how to improve the resources and tools in the community.Connection to a learning community provides the social context needed to help learners feel lessisolated. Through authentic sharing between learners and instructors, students have opportunitiesto interact not only on the content and skills being learned (through collaborative projects, teamactivities, debates, discussions, role-plays, interviews, etc.), but also on topics such as: a) differentlearning and management approaches and strategies to use; b) resources and referencesparticularly helpful; c) professional and career goals and opportunities; and d) personal interests.This type of interaction – which keeps learners actively connected to the learning environmentand education provider – can foster learner competencies, such as self-directed learning skills,because it creates a positive psychological climate built upon trusting human relationships(Knowles, 1990).
Page 11 Ludwig-Hardman & Dunlap ~ Learner Support Services for Online Students: Scaffolding for success11Conclusion“The success of distance education, to a greater degree, will depend on the ability of educationalinstitutions to personalize the teaching and learning process” (Saba, 1998, p. 1). Through the useof high-touch, high-interaction learner support services strategies – such as connection to acommunity of learners and the other scaffolding techniques described in the previous section –online students feel less isolated and are immersed in an environment that supports them as theydevelop or enhance their self-directed learning skills. These types of learner support servicesproactively address the challenges of online student retention by acknowledging that: “learning isa very human activity. The more people feel they are being treated as human beings – that theirhuman needs are being taken into account – the more they are likely to learn and learn to learn”(Knowles, 1990, p. 129). Although scaffolding to enhance self-direction and reduce isolationshould also occur at the course level (see McLoughlin and Marshall, 2000), individual courseinstructors may be ill prepared to provide the level of scaffolding needed for individual studentsor may not attend to scaffolding consistently across learning experiences. Learner supportservices personnel can provide the consistency and individualized attention learners need to besuccessful in an online learning environment because they are involved with learners throughouttheir educational experience with the institution. In this way, regardless of the quality or quantityof scaffolding provided by individual instructors, online learners have specific people to workwith that know their particular goals, needs, and strengths. WGU has discovered that learnersupport services can improve the quality of students’ academic experiences, connect them to theuniversity, and help them develop the self-directed learning skills that are necessary to succeed inan online learning environment and thus empower them to achieve their learning goals andchange their lives. In this way, learner support services can provide scaffolding for success.ReferencesAbrahamson, C. E. (1998). Issues in interactive communication in distance education. CollegeStudent Journal 32(1), 33 – 43.Abrami, P. C., and Bures, E. M. (1996). Computer-supported collaborative learning and distanceeducation. American Journal of Distance Education 10(1), 37 – 42.Anton, M. (1999). The discourse of a learner-centered classroom: Sociocultural perspectives onteacher-learner interaction in the second-language classroom. The Modern LanguageJournal 83(5), 303 – 318.Bennett, S., Priest, A., and Macpherson, C. (1999). Learning about online learning: An approachto staff development for university teachers. Australian Journal of EducationalTechnology 15(3), 207 – 221.Besser, H., and Donahue, S. (1996). Perspectives on . . . distance independent education:Introduction and overview. Journal of the American Society for Information Science47(11), 801 – 804.Booher, R. K., and Seiler, W. J. (1982). Speech communication anxiety: An impediment toacademic achievement in the university classroom. Journal of Classroom Interaction18(1), 23 – 27.
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